GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN CLUTCH SIZE AND A REALIZED BENEFIT OF AGGREGATIVE FEEDING

1. F P P 16.4 <0.0001 G 0.282 0.5992 P x G 0.06 0.8079 F P P 69.3 <0.0001 G 10.11 0.0029 P x G 1.66 0.21 Sympatric with B. polydamas Figure 1. Pattern of mtDNA variation ( 500bp COII). Pie chart indicates the frequency of each unique haplotype (indicated as a unique color). The haplotype network indicates little nucleotide diversity. The geographic distribution of mtDNA variation is consistent with models of recent range expansion, where the ancestral range has the highest diversity and the recent, or leading edge, of a range expansion has reduced variation (Ibrahim et al. 1996). Figure 2. As larvae, B. philenor sequesters aristolochic acid toxins from their Aristolochia host plants. As a consequence B. philenor is a model for various mimics. The greatest number of mimics occur in the south-east. One interpretation for this pattern is that the region with the greatest number of mimics represents the ancestral range of B. philenor. This interpretation of the geographic distribution of the mimics is consistent with our interpretation of mtDNA variation, specifically recent range expansion from a refuge(s) in the southeast United States. clip-cage leaf GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN CLUTCH SIZE AND A REALIZED BENEFIT OF AGGREGATIVE FEEDING JAMES A. FORDYCE1, and CHRIS C. NICE2 1Department of Ecology and jfordyce@utk.edu Reciprocal Transplant Experiment The accelerated growth rate associated with larvae emerging from larger clutches in California appears to be adaptive. Faster growing larvae spend less time in vulnerable early instars. If aggregative feeding in California is an adaptation to manipulate host plant suitability, one prediction is that this realized benefit would be absent in populations where clutches are significantly smaller. We conducted a reciprocal transplant experiment of larvae between California and Texas to test this prediction. Here we were interested in determining whether accelerated growth associated with larger feeding aggregations was a characteristic unique to the California B. philenor population or unique to the California host plant (Figure 5). Historical Context We conducted a phylogeographic study of Battus philenor to place our populations of interest in a historical context. This was partially motivated by the fact that the California population of B. philenor is considered a unique sub-species, B. p. hirsuta, while the other populations found in the U.S. are considered B. p. philenor. We conducted the study to determine if it was legitimate to consider geographic variation in clutch size as an intraspecific phenomena, or if it represented different life history strategies by two distinct phylogenetic groups. Based on patterns of mtDNA variation we conclude that the extant population of B. philenor in California is a recent addition to the California fauna. Additionally, the biogeography of various mimics of B. philenor is consistent with our interpretation of the genetic variation. Thus, we presume that the larger clutches observed in California are a relatively recent phenomena (Fordyce & Nice 2003). Abstract Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the adaptive significance of of pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor) larvae in California effectively manipulate host plant suitability and consequently grow at an accelerated rate compared to larvae feeding in small groups. Clutch size and feeding aggregation size are substantially larger in California compared to populations studied elsewhere. It is possible that the large clutches and aggregative feeding of larvae observed in California are an adaptation to the California host plant, whereby larvae effectively manipulate host plant suitability. One pattern that would be consistent with this hypothesis is that the realized benefit of accelerated larval growth rate associated with larger feeding aggregations would be most evident in populations that lay large clutches. We address this hypothesis using reciprocal transplant experiments with larvae from the aggregative feeding California population and a Texas population that lays significantly smaller clutches. We found that the benefit of increased growth rate associated with feeding in larger groups occurred only on the California host plant and was observed for larvae from both populations. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that larger clutch size and aggregative feeding are adaptations to characteristics of the California host plant. Future studies on the evolution of clutch size and aggregative feeding of herbivorous insects should consider how these life history traits affect host plant suitability. Texas California Average clutch size is substantially larger in California compared to populations described elsewhere. Figure 5. Results of the reciprocal transplant experiment. Weight of larvae after 48 hours of feeding. Factors for each experiment were source population (P) and group size (G; 2 or 12 neonate larvae). The significant population effect is due to California eggs and neonate larvae being 20% larger than those from Texas (Fordyce & Nice 2004). California (A. californica) clutch size: 12.7  0.5 range: (2 - 38) Texas (A. erecta) clutch size: 5.0  0.3 range: (1 - 17) Conclusion Numerous hypotheses have been developed to explain the evolution of large clutch size and aggregative feeding in the Lepidoptera (Stamp 1980). This system provided us with an opportunity to examine geographic variation in benefits associated with clutch size variation and aggregative feeding. The two populations of B. philenor employ decidedly different strategies. The population in California lays larger clutches, and on the California host plant accelerated growth is a consequence of larger feeding aggregations. This is consistent with the hypothesis that inter-population variation in clutch size is an adaptation to local host plant characteristics, specifically the induced responses of the plant to various degrees of herbivore damage (Fordyce 2003). Ultimately, it demonstrates that the life histories of insect herbivores may be modified in ways that effectively manipulate or circumvent herbivore induced responses in plants. Significance of Aggregative Feeding in California Only one host plant is available to B. philenor in California, the endemic A. californica. Previous work has indicated that larger feeding aggregations grow at an increased rate. This effect of group size appears to be mediated by host plant, where plants (leaves) receiving damage by larger group sizes are manipulated in such a way as to facilitate increased larval growth rate (Figure 3). This effect of group size is absent on excised leaves. Figure 4. Mean ( SE) and range of clutch size in California and Texas. Though other species of Aristolochia have been recorded in the vicinity of our Texas study location, A. erecta was the only potential host plant available to B. philenor at our study site. Clutch Size and Host Plant Characteristics The host plant used at our Texas study location is A. erecta, a semi-erect herbaceous perennial. The California population of B. philenor uses A. californica, an endemic climbing liana that can cover an area greater than 100 m2. To determine if host plant characteristics might explain variation in clutch size observed within the two focal populations (Pilson & Rausher 1988), the number of eggs per clutch was assessed in the field and measurements of the host plants were recorded. Texas: the number of leaves on the plant, height of the plant, distance to its nearest A. erecta neighbor was quantified for all plants where egg clutches were found. None of the plant characteristics we measured explained variation in clutch size (F3,90 = 0.57; P = 0.63). California:the % cover in m2, height of the plant, distance to the nearest neighbor was quantified for all plants where egg clutches were found. Some of the clutch size variation in California could be explained by the host plant characteristics (F3,194 = 7.73, P < 0.0001). Clutch size increased with the height of the plant (forward stepwise regression; F1,196 = 22.0, P < 0.0001, R2 = 0.09). The average plant height sampled in Texas was 16 cm and in California was 18.5 cm. In California, even plants that were less than 5cm high had 10.2  1.02 (mean  SE) eggs per clutch. Thus, it seems unlikely that the relationship between clutch size and stem height sufficiently explains the comparatively larger clutches in California compared to Texas (Fordyce & Nice 2004). Acknowledgements: Thanks to A.A. Agrawal, J.P. Bach, M.F. Benard, V. Boucher, M.L. Forister, F. Horne, R. Karban, A.M. Shapiro, S.Y. Strauss, D. Tolson, the Univeristy of California Natural Reserve System, & Freeman Ranch (Texas State University, San Marcos). This project was supported by grants from the Center for Population Biology (UC Davis) and the Graduate Group in Ecology (UC Davis) and the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology (University of Tennessee). References Fordyce, J.A. 2003. Aggregative feeding of pipevine swallowtail larvae enhances host plant suitability. Oecologia 135:250-257. Fordyce, J.A., and C.C. Nice 2003. Contemporary patterns in a historical context: a phylogeographic history of the pipevine swallowtail, Battus philenor (Papilionidae). Evolution 57:1089-1099. Fordyce, J.A., and C.C. Nice 2004. Geographic variation in clutch size and a realized benefit of aggregative feeding. Evolution in press. Ibrahim, K.M., R.A. Nichols, and G.M. Hewitt. 1996. Spatial patterns of genetic variation by different forms of dispersal during range expansion. Heredity 77:282-291. Pilson, D., and M.D. Rausher. 1988. Clutch Size Adjustment by A Swallowtail Butterfly. Nature 333:361-363. Stamp, N.E. 1980. Egg deposition patterns in butterflies: Why do some species cluster their eggs rather than deposit them singly? Am. Nat. 115:367-380. Figure 3. In an experiment to determine if accelerated growth associated with larger group sizes was mediated by changes in the plant (induced suitability), direct interaction between an “experimental” larva and “inducer” larvae was prevented by confining caterpillars to clip cages. “Experimental” larvae gained more weight over 48 hours when they were feeding on leaves that experienced damage by larger numbers of “inducer” larvae (Fordyce 2003).

2. MAPPING PRE-SERVICE TEACHER GROWTH: POINTS OF INTEREST FOR TEACHER EDUCATORS LISA SCHERFF and HANNAH GERBER College of Education, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL Preliminary Results: Heath Reflections “Even on the surface, students can seem like everyone else—all dressed alike and seemingly living in similar home situations. It wasn’t until I sat in on a parent-teacher conference and learned things about kids’ homes, etc. that I never would have guessed. Just knowing [it] could help me reach certain students and at least understand why they behave or react certain ways.” Context The July 2006 English Education, reporting on the CEE Leadership and Policy Summit, raised some significant questions for readers: What are some new directions for research? What are the relationships among methods courses, initial field experiences, and student teaching, and what should they be? How might we more meaningfully assess the effectiveness of English education programs? These questions are more imperative given the divisive political debates about teacher education. As Linda Darling-Hammond (2006) forewarns, “productive strategies for evaluating outcomes are becoming increasingly important for the improvement, and even the survival of teacher education” (p. 120). Abstract For the last year, we systematically collected data on our undergraduate teacher candidates in order to attempt to answer the questions: what are our strengths and weaknesses; what are teacher candidates’ strengths and weaknesses; and what needs to be done to create the most effective English education program and graduates? This presentation will describe the types of data collected, a rationale for the data collected, the timeline for collection, what has been learned, and implications for practice and program design. Sample assignments, templates, and rubrics will be provided. • Preliminary Results: Action Research • The action research proposal required students to identify a classroom issue or concern based on their clinical experiences. Then, students posed the issue as a question and composed a rationale as to why it is important to study. The final component was to research and select three articles from peer-reviewed journals, read them, and provide a short written summary. The three most common areas of concern were: • Gender (4) • Behavior/classroom management (4) • High-stakes testing and instruction (2) Methods and Subjects We collected and analyzed multiple sources of data: a stress survey, teaching episode videos from CSE 390 and CSE 489, teaching reflections based on mentoring conferences, written reflections on Ways with Words, action research proposals, teaching personal digital stories, and final reflections. Participants included 13 pre-service teachers (12 undergraduate, 1 graduate) in the English Education program. Four of the 13 were also selected for more in-depth study because they had been students of the primary researcher for their introductory course, CSE 390. Data was collected from January 2006 through December 2006. Framework Reflection is integral to growth and individuals learn only when they realize that their current ideas and/or practices are not adequate for the tasks at hand (Dewey, 1916). Our teacher education program places heavy emphasis on preparing educators to be reflective practitioners, and we provide multiple opportunities (case study and writing, reflective journaling, video-tape reflections, teaching metaphors, etc.) for students to think about their practice. However, as teacher educators, we realized we did not practice the same level of reflection when it came to our program. Thus, we turned to self-study as a methodology. Self-study of a program, in our view, should mirror the curricular conversation construct developed by Applebee (1996) and “coherent teacher education program” furthered by Dickson, Smagorinsky, et al. (2006) so that data collection is “deliberately structured to enable conversations about teaching and learning” (p. 314). In our view, such data includes self-report surveys, videotaped teaching episodes, mentor and university supervisor evaluations, course grades, and artifacts of student learning (formal and informal). More importantly, this data should be consciously designed and strategically collected and recursive in nature. For more information, contact Preliminary Results: Stress Survey We measured the differences in the teachers’ self-reported stress levels between their introductory course (CSE 390) and when they were to begin student teaching. In most areas, the pre-service teachers’ stress levels decreased. However, several areas increased—and these areas aligned with what they reported in their Heath reflections and what they discussed with their university mentors during post-teaching conferences. Areas of Most Stress Reduction (in order): Writing detailed lesson plans; establishing rapport with students; communicating with and relating to principal/vice-principal; communicating with and relating to teachers in the school. Areas of Increased Stress (from least to most): Managing the class and enforcing discipline; helping pupils with emotional/behavioral problems; teaching mixed ability classes; others expecting me to perform tasks beyond my current competency.

3. TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION IN ALABAMA: A FOLLOW-UP STUDY LISA SCHERFF College of Education, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL Preliminary Results: Research Questions 4-5 RQ4: Of those that completed the follow up survey (n=106), only six left their schools (in phase 1, 23 indicated they would leave); of those six, one moved, one was laid off, and one was dissatisfied with their job . RQ5: Comments support the findings for RQ3 “we have become so test driven” “the discipline and lack of respect are insurmountable; incompetent leadership, the buddy system, and the cliques are overwhelming” “there are not resources to do my job” “teaching is not about the students anymore” “salaries do not reflect the enormous responsibilities placed upon teachers” “I do not have a classroom of my own and am given very little planning time” “more parental accountability” “I wish I had time during the day to actually teach!!!” “Our principal is a very poor leader” “Students don’t care. Period. And they don’t care that they don’t care” Background According to Susan Moore Johnson (2004), a “perfect storm” is brewing, one with potential to undermine the quality of our country’s schools and negatively affect the future of our students: massive retirements by veteran teachers, the requirements of No Child Left Behind, the loss of potential teachers to other careers, and high attrition rates of new teachers. Each of these has its own implications; together, they spell disaster for many students. For example, the heightened accountability associated with high-stakes test is already negatively impacting the profession. In a recent Alabama study, over 55% of teachers indicated an “overemphasis on testing” as a reason as influencing their decision to leave the profession (Hirsch, 2006, p. 8). Sunderman, Tracey, Kim, and Orfield also found that “many of the teachers in schools that were identified as needing improvement do not plan to be teaching in them five years in the future . . . [and] also believed that the NCLB sanctions would cause teachers to transfer out of schools not making adequate progress” (2004, p. 3). Other teachers leave early because there was never an intention to stay in the profession long-term. Johnson and Birkeland (2003) report that potential teachers today, because of a work environment different than 30 years ago, one offering a plethora of career possibilities, jobs with high status and pay, and chances for promotion to high levels, may not choose teaching. “Serial careers are the norm, and short-term employment is common” (p. 585). Research Questions 1) What are Alabama’s teacher demographics (preparation route, certification, length in the profession, etc.)? 2) In what types of mentoring, support, and professional development activities do teachers take part? 3) What school conditions (e.g., leadership, collegiality, resources) add to or detract from teachers’ level of satisfaction? 4) What are the attrition rates for teachers? How do they vary, if at all, among schools (e.g., rural, urban, large, small) and method(s) of preparation? 5) What personal (efficacy, etc.), professional (certification, training, years of experience, etc.), and institutional (working conditions, etc.) factors affect teacher attrition, retention, and mobility? Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the personal, professional, and institutional characteristics of Alabama K-12 public school teachers to provide a fuller picture of, and relationship between and among, teacher preparation, induction and mentoring, working conditions, and attrition. The research, with input from the Center for Teaching Quality (CTQ), built on their initial study of teacher recruitment and retention completed for the Alabama Department of Education (Hirsch, 2006). This study replicated the initial CTQ study adding additional and a more diverse set of school systems. The unique component of the study was a follow-up survey conducted at the end of the 2006-2007 school year investigating any causal relationships between perceptions of working conditions and whether or not teachers stayed in the profession, changed schools/school systems, or left teaching. • References • Hirsch, E. (2006, February). Recruiting and retaining teachers in Alabama: Educators on what it will take to staff all classrooms with quality teachers. Chapel Hill, NC: Center for Teaching Quality. • Johnson, S. M. (2004). Finders and keepers: Helping new teachers survive and thrive in our schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. • Johnson, S. M., & Birkeland, S. E. (2003). Pursuing a “sense of success”: New teachers explain their career decisions. American Educational Research Journal, 40(3), 581-617. • Sunderman, G. L., Tracey, C. A., Kim, J., & Orfield, G. (2004). Listening to teachers: Classroom realities and No Child Left Behind. Cambridge, MA: The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University. Methods and Subjects The study utilized a two-stage survey research design. The initial 25 item survey, which duplicated the CTQ format, address the five research questions was administered in January 2007. The follow-up survey (summer 2007), based on the U.S. DOE’s Teacher Follow-Up Survey (TFS), investigates research questions four and five by determining how many teachers stayed in or changed schools and which ones left the profession. In addition, the follow-up survey also assess which factors led to teachers’ mobility decisions. Surveys were created and housed on www.surveymonkey.com; teachers were be emailed the link. Over 600 K-12 teachers in five districts participated. Preliminary Results: Research Questions 1-3 RQ1: 97% held regular certification; 73% earned their credentials through a bachelor’s degree program and 18% through a master’s degree program; 63% reported student teaching lasting 12 weeks to one semester; 18% had student teaching from 8-11 weeks; 4% had not student teaching; 28% had been teaching 11-19 years and 24% had been teaching for 20+ years. RQ2: 70% did not participate in an induction program; only 1% received a reduced teaching schedule their first year and only 7% received fewer preparations; the most common professional development activity (89%) is attending local workshops/training (non-ARI) followed by regularly scheduled collaboration with colleagues, excluding department meetings (54%); while 40% attended 8+ hours of ESE training in the last 3 years only 12% reported doing so for ESL/ELL. RQ3: 54% of respondents planned on staying at their schools for the 2007-2008 school year; for those that planned on leaving, six factors were extremely important in their decision: inadequate support from leadership, insufficient daily work time, inadequate salary, student discipline problems, too much focus on testing and accountability, and personal reasons.

4. DETRACKING SECONDARY ENGLISH CLASSES: A DEMOCRATIC OR “ROBIN HOOD” APPROACH? LISA SCHERFF and SHANNON JACKSON 1College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA Preliminary Results: Reading Historical Context The challenges presented by NCLB are causing some schools to examine their instructional practices, including not only what is taught and when, but how students are organized for that teaching. One example is an urban high school in a Southeastern state that in 2002-2003 decided to restructure its English course offerings, eliminating the two lowest tracks for ninth and tenth grade students. The impetus was ensuring that every student had equal access to literacy instruction. However, with the modification in place only one year, whether it worked remained to be seen. At the request of school administrators, in August 2004 a research team comprised of university and high school faculty undertook this challenge. The purpose of the exploratory study was to provide data concerning (1) whether detracking increased learning opportunities for every child, (2) the extent to which detracking was raising student achievement, and (3) students’ and teachers’ attitudes regarding detracking. What is reported here are preliminary data from the first evaluation conducted in December 2004. Abstract Numerous researchers over the last forty years have debated the merits of tracking and detracking. Early critiques of ability grouping were contradictory with some researchers noting that students in the lowest tracks benefited more than those in the higher tracks (Findley & Bryan, 1971; Goodlad, 1960; Otto, 1950; Rosenbaum, 1980) and others viewing it as the “rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer” (Heathers, 1969, p. 566). Noting the equity problems associated with tracking, at the end of the 2002-2003 school year, the English Department at a large, urban high school in East Tennessee decided to restructure its course offerings, eliminating the two lowest tracks (Basic and Fundamental) for ninth and tenth grade students. The motivation behind the restructuring (detracking) was to improve student achievement and promote high expectations for every child, and was based on work by researchers such as Robert Marzano (2001), Carol Anne Tomlinson (1999), and Carolyn Chapman and Gayle H. Gregory (2002). To study whether the curricular modification was working, we chose a quasi-experimental design using control and experimental groups that also incorporated case study methods. Preliminary results based on the Fall 2004 semester show that detracking seems to work in some areas of English classes but not others. Moreover, through teacher interviews we learned that teachers at the detracked school do not view detracked classes in a positive light. Because the research presented here is preliminary, a more complete investigation will take place in June 2005. Theoretical Framework Tracking and ability grouping, the practice of dividing students by achievement levels into separate classes or curriculum paths (Oakes, 1986), both foster and allow for a “traditional” way of organizing and running a classroom. Qualitative research stresses how tracking denies low-ability students challenging curricular opportunities and stigmatizes them (Darling-Hammond, 1995; Loveless, 1999; Lucas, 1999).Moreover, evidence suggests that low-track classes have unsupportive climates, while high-track classes tend to have supportive climates (Page, 1990). Teachers encourage high-track students to question and probe and challenge both teacher and text; students in low-track classes who question the same teacher are viewed and treated as insubordinate (Page, 1989). “Typically . . . teachers in low-track classes believe that teaching academic material is not the main goal for their classes. Instead . . . [it] is to keep their students well-behaved, interested, and achieving at the C level” (Lockwood, 1996, p. 3). In a case study highlighting the tracking that occurred in one high school, Merilee K. Finley (1984) observed the stark differences between advanced and remedial classes: remedial classes are designed to improve literacy and teach survival skills while advanced classes concentrate heavily on classical literature, literary analysis, and expository writing—the traditional, college curriculum (pg. 234- 235). Likewise, Goodlad (1984) found unequal opportunities as a result of tracking and grouping. High-track English classes were exposed to “high-status knowledge”—classic and modern fiction, critical thinking applications, and research skills. Low-track students, on the other hand, were taught through such methods as workbooks, worksheets, and low-level thinking activities. Teachers in high-track classes often devote more time to instruction and are more enthusiastic. Their students feel they “care” more (Goodlad, 1984; Oakes, 1986). Because student perceptions of a teacher’s concern may affect achievement, tracking may also explain low success rates (Cummins, 1993; Wittrock, 1986). In terms of the social implications of tracking and ability grouping, most studies show that the practice hurts the self-evaluation of average and lower-ability students (Oakes & Lipton, 1992; Rosenbaum, 1980). The conclusion of research in this area is that attention must be paid to altering restrictive beliefs about differential ability to learn and self-defeating teaching methods that follow from such beliefs (Weinstein, 1996). Methods and Subjects To complete the research, an experimental design was utilized with the “detracked” school classified as experimental and a “tracked” high school in the same city as the control. Because last year was the first year of the modification, the present study utilized all tenth grade English classes to allow for more consistent data analysis and interpretation. To triangulate the data, both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed. Quantitative data came from student responses on The Secondary School Language Arts Survey (Scherff, 2002) which gathered information concerning their perceived access and exposure to language arts curriculum and practice. Qualitative data came from three sources: open-end comments on the surveys, artifacts, and audio taped interviews with teachers. Participants are in this study were approximately 150 tenth grade students from two Tennessee high schools (tracked and detracked) and English teachers (n=3) from the detracked high school. The “tracked” school was chosen because its demographics were closest to the detracked school. Because the sample was not normally distributed, only descriptive statistics were employed. Fig 3. Mean for Number of Plays Read 1= 1-2, 2=3-4, 3=4-5, 4= 7 or more Fig 4. Mean for Working with Literature Textbook 1= once or twice a year, 2= once or twice a semester, 3=once or twice a quarter, 4=once or twice a month, 5= almost every week Preliminary Results: Writing • Preliminary Results: Teacher Attitudes • “It’s been really hard for me, because the principal, is like set your standards high. And I have a hard time seeing a kid that continually struggles but has made progress but they’re going to fail because I’ve set my standards high . . . like one of them read Speak and he said, “That’s the first book I’ve ever read.” Well, to me, that’s a step in the right direction but he’s still gonna fail because he hasn’t met the standards of the college prep curriculum and the class and I could give him, you know, a D modified but I don’t do the D modified thing unless they’re special ed. . . I mean, it bothers me that . . . they’ve made significant gains and they’ve made, you know, they’ve learned something but their grade will not show it.” • “I have some kids that I know would have had a lot of success in a basic class and we really could have, they could have, learned a lot and experienced genuine success and that’s been, even though there were opportunities for them to, they have a very hard time looking at it, you know, when something’s that difficult they’re not . . . I guess as intrinsically motivated as they need to be and then it seems really, really hard and so they’re gonna quit no matter what.” Fig 1. Mean for journal writing 1= once or twice a year, 2= once or twice a semester, 3=once or twice a quarter, 4=once or twice a month, 5= almost every week Future Directions Because of low teacher participation at the detracked school, the number of student participants is low, resulting in mixed preliminary findings. Thus, for the second round of data collection and analysis the researchers will conduct the student surveys for the teachers. In addition, average pre and post standardized test scores will be gathered for each class period of students to learn information regarding achievement growth. Finally, to provide a more detailed comparison, an additional tracked school will serve as another control group. Fig 2. Mean for Persuasive Essays 1= once or twice a year, 2= once or twice a semester, 3=once or twice a quarter, 4=once or twice a month, 5= almost every week