Indigenous Sacred Ways (Part 3)

1. Indigenous Sacred Ways (Part 3) September 2012

2. Indigenous Peoples of North America • A wide variety of cultural and linguistic groups existed in North America before the arrival of European settlers • The indigenous peoples of the Americas were devastated by diseases and conflict following contact with Europeans • In many communities, upwards of 75% of the population died from diseases such as smallpox • Due to massive depopulation and pressure from colonists, traditional indigenous ways of life were severely disrupted

4. Indigenous Peoples in Canada • The indigenous peoples of Canada fall under three categories: • Inuit: indigenous peoples of the Canadian Arctic and Greenland • First Nations: indigenous peoples of Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis • Métis: people of mixed First Nations and European descent

5. Religion and Indigenous Peoples of Canada • Prior to contact with Europeans, the indigenous peoples of Canada had spiritual practices based on relationships between humans, nature, and multiple spiritual beings • Colonization was accompanied by Christian (mainly Anglican and Catholic) missionary activity • Although missionaries forced indigenous people into Christianity in some instances, conversion was often voluntary • Over 85% of indigenous Canadians now identify as Christian • However, since indigenous spirituality is often based on ritual and practice, rather than codified belief systems, some indigenous Canadians see no conflict in identifying as Christian but practicing traditional spiritual activities

6. First Peoples of Canada: The Inuit • Traditionally, Inuit culture was nomadic, travelling great distances across the inhospitable terrain of the Canadian North in search of food and resources • The traditional Inuit worldview recognizes many powerful spiritual forces existing within nature • One of the most powerful spirits in Inuit mythology is Sedna, a sea goddess • If Sedna is displeased with humanity, she will not release the sea creatures for hunters to catch • Shamans, called angakkuit, were responsible for maintaining a balanced relationship between humans and spirits, thus ensuring the survival of the community

7. First Peoples of Canada: The Mi’kmaq • The Mi’kmaq are a First Nations people indigenous to the Maritime provinces, eastern Quebec, and New England • Mi’kmaq mythology centres upon the heroic Glooscap, who created and shaped the world and overcame various evil beings, including his evil brother Malsm • Many legends tell of Glooscap creating the various terrain features of the Maritimes

8. First Peoples of Canada: The Haida • The Haida are a First Nations people indigenous to the Pacific Northwest • Traditional Haida spirituality was expressed in ceremonies, which often involved the giving of gifts (in potlatch ceremonies) and stylized dances with elaborate animal masks • Shamans maintained the spiritual well-being of the community and brought spiritual powers to bear against enemies • The Haida believed in reincarnation • Animals held great spiritual authority and were often represented in stylized forms in Haida art

10. First Peoples of Canada: The Iroquois • The Iroquois, or Haudenosaunee, are a league of several First Nations in the Great Lakes area • Iroquois society was complex, and involved agriculture as well as hunting and gathering, allowing for a more sedentary lifestyle • Iroquois spirituality centred upon the Great Spirit, who fought the evil forces of the world • Following the wishes of the Great Spirit during one’s lifetime led to a favourable afterlife • Iroquois spirituality was more structured than that of many other indigenous peoples, and was administered by religious specialists

11. Handsome Lake • After the American Revolutionary War, the Iroquois Confederacy was forced off much of its traditional land • In this period of upheaval, Handsome Lake (1735-1815) fell into despair and alcohol abuse before slipping into a coma • During this coma, Handsome Lake claimed to have been visited by three angels sent from Tarachiawagon, the Creator • Shortly afterwards, another angel took Handsome Lake on a “Sky Journey,” a tour of heaven and hell

12. Handsome Lake’s Code • Handsome Lake began teaching a new spirituality, which incorporated elements of traditional Iroquois spirituality and Christianity • Traditional Iroquois spirituality recognized the need for balance between creative and destructive forces, personified by Tarachiawagon and his brother Tawiskaron; Handsome Lake called for worship of Tarachiawagon alone and identified Tawiskaron as evil • Handsome Lake’s code, called Gaiwiio (“the good word”), called upon people to reject immorality, alcohol, and witchcraft, and work to renew Iroquois culture

13. The Ghost Dance • Another instance of indigenous sacred ways being reinterpreted in response to colonialism is the famous Ghost Dance movement of the late 19th century • The Ghost Dance movement was initiated by Wovoka, a spiritual leader of the Paiute people of the western United States • The Ghost Dance was an adaptation of a ritual dance which called upon the Great Spirit to bring about an apocalyptic revitalization of Native American culture, which had been shattered by the disappearance of the buffalo herds • In 1890, US Cavalry massacred 300 practitioners of the Ghost Dance at Wounded Knee, South Dakota

14. Colonialism in Canada • Unlike the United States, Canadian history is mostly free of large-scale wars between colonists and indigenous peoples • However, the Canadian government actively tried to assimilate indigenous peoples and eradicate their culture • Some indigenous traditions, such as the potlatch and the Sun Dance, were illegal until the 1950s • Beginning in the 19th century, residential schools were established with the aim of converting young indigenous Canadians to Christianity and Euro-Canadian culture • These schools were run by Christian churches, but attendance was compulsory under Canadian law until the 1940s • The federal government took sole control of the schools in 1969 • The last residential school closed in 1996 • Students were prohibited from speaking indigenous languages or practicing indigenous sacred traditions; physical, psychological, and sexual abuse was widespread • Stephen Harper issued an apology for the residential school system in 2008