The Enlightenment

1. The Enlightenment The European Age of Reason 1689-1789

2. Origins of the Enlightenment • The ideals of humanism from the Renaissance permeate society. • Rediscovery of classical texts influences the new philosophers. • The Scientific Revolution convinces many that the world can be understood through natural laws. • The Wars of Religion persuade many that toleration is the only way for civilization to survive.

3. The Doctrine of Progress • Philosophes believed in the progress of human beings. • Human beings were basically good, but corrupted by society; therefore, human institutions needed reform • Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) made argument in Progress of the Human Mind

4. John Locke (1632-1704) • Two Treatises on Civil Government:justified supremacy of Parliament; natural rights • Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): tabula rasa (“blank slate”) • considered one of most important Enlightenment works • all human knowledge is the result of sensory experience: thus, human progress is in the hands of society—education!

5. Deism • secular world view: first time in human history; marked end of age of religion • natural science and reason • deism: God created universe and then stepped back and left it running (like a clock) – prime mover • Grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law • ThomasPaine, Age of Reason: advocates deism • Voltaire also advocated deism over Christianity.

6. Voltaire (1694-1778) • François Marie Arouet • Ardent critic of the Old Regime • Wrote essays, letters, plays. • Candide (1759) satire criticizing religious persecution and superstition.

7. Voltaire in England • Voltaire in imprisoned in France after his ideas offend French authorities. • He lived in England from 1726 to 1729. • He comes to admire the English toleration of political ideas and religion. • Returning to France, he published Letters on the English (1733), admiring English constitutionalism and criticizing French absolutism.

8. Voltaire in England

9. Voltaire and Tolerance • Voltaire supported toleration in religion and politics, an idea he saw in practice in England. • Voltaire defended Jean Calas, a Hugeunot accused of murdering his son lest he convert to Catholicism. • He published his Treatise on Tolerance in 1763, convincing authorities to reverse their conviction of Calas in 1765.

10. The Enlightened Despots Catherine the Great • Least “enlightened” of the Enlightened Despots • westernization: architecture, sculpture, music--supported philosophes • reforms:reduced torture, limited religious toleration, some education improvement, increased local control

11. The Enlightened Despots • Joseph II (1765-1790) – greatest of the Enlightened despots (“greatest good for greatest number”) • Abolished serfdom in 1781, freedom of press, freedom of religion & civic rights, more equitable justice system, made German official language (to assimilate minorities), increased control over Catholic education, expanded state schools, left empire in economic and political turmoil: Leopold I rescind many laws (e.g., serfdom)

12. The Enlightened Despots • Frederick the Great • Became a reformer during 2nd half of his reign; ruler was the “first servant of the state” • Religious freedom, education in schools and universities, codified laws, promoted industry and agriculture, encouraged immigration • Social structure remained heavily stratified: serfdom; extended privileges for the nobility, Junkers became heart of military; difficult upward mobility for middle class leadership.

13. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) • French attorney and philosophe. • Believed in no single political system. • In Spirit of the Laws (1748) advocated separation of powers amongst executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

14. Diderot and the Encyclopedia • Denis Diderot (1718-1784) edited the Encyclopedia published in 28 vols. Between 1751 and 1772. • Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu contributed articles.

15. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • Born in Geneva to Calvinist family • He believed rationalism and civilization was destroying rather than liberating the individual; emphasized nature, passion—influenced early Romantic movement

16. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • Natural Education • Rousseau believed that in there natural state, humans were virtuous, free, equal, and happy. • Civilization had corrupted them. • Natural education would free children of corruption • Set forth ideas in Emile (1762). • Children would learn through experience (nature, emotional experience), not books.

17. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • General Will • Rousseau advocated radical contract form of government in The Social Contract (1762) • Desired freedom, but rejected individualism and focused on his role in society. • People’s opinion would form the “general will” to be carried out by a small government. • He did not favor democracy, but felt that sovereignty laid in the people.

18. Economic Philosophes • François Quesnay (1694-1774) – “physiocrats”: opposed to mercantilist economic theory. • advocated reform of the agrarian order. • Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations (1776): The “Bible” of capitalism; laissez faire “let do” François Quesnay

19. Women Philosophes • Gender theory: women played important role in organizing salons. • Salons of Madame de Geoffren and Louise de Warens • Mary Wollstonecraft – Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) Mary Wollstonecraft

20. The Later Enlightenment: • Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789): humans were machines governed by outside forces • freewill, God, and immortality of soul were foolish myths • severe blow to unity of the Enlightenment • David Hume (1711-76): emphasized limitations of human reasoning (similar to Rousseau) • human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions; later became dogmatic skeptic that undermined Enlightenment • Immanuel Kant (1724-1794): Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge. • Science could describe natural phenomena of material world but could not provide a guide for morality