Rhetoric = The Art of Persuasion

1. Rhetoric = The Art of Persuasion The history of rhetoric and the concepts of ethos, pathos and logos began in Greece.

2. The School of Athens Painted by Raphael (1483-1520), this masterpiece depicts an intellectual gathering of the great philosophers of classical times at a school called the Ancient Agora of Athens.  The Agora remains standing today in Athens, Greece.  The school served as an academic meeting place for the great philosophers of classical times. In particular, this painting portrays Plato, Aristotle and other philosophers engaging in philosophical inquiry.  Although this painting depicts Classical antiquity, it was created during the Renaissance.  

3. A Definition for Rhetoric • Rhetoric is, in essence, the art of persuasion. • Aristotle defined this art as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." • In other words, it is the art of finding the best way to persuade a particular audience in a particular situation.

4. Aristotle’s Classical Appeals Aristotle identified three appeals that can be used to convince the audience. An appeal to ethos (to establish the speaker’s character and values). An appeal to pathos (to stir emotions). And an appeal to logos (to show the audience the logic and truth of the argument).

5. Who is Aristotle? Aristotle was a famous Greek philosopher who studied the art of persuasion. Plato, another famous Greek philosopher, was his teacher. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great how to properly argue and perform a public speech.

6. In approximately 300 B.C.E. Aristotle, who was a famous Greek philosopher, wrote a book entitled, “The Art of Rhetoric.” In his book, Aristotle identified the three methods of persuasion. He called them ethos, pathos and logos. Ethos, Logos and Pathos Aristotle Plato The Man The Book

7. Ethos, Pathos and Logos 1. Ethos = an ethical or moral argument 2. Pathos = an emotional argument 3. Logos = a logical argument

8. Ethos The word "ethos“ means moral or showing moral character.  Aristotle contends that a speaker must establish moral credibility in the minds of the audience at the beginning of his or her speech.   In order to do so, the speaker must show that he or she has expertise in the subject matter of the speech and that he or she is disconnected from topic (i.e., the speaker does not and will not have a direct interest or an ulterior motive for convincing their audience). For example, when a trusted doctor gives you advice, you may not understand all of the medical reasoning behind the advice, but you nonetheless follow the directions because you believe that the doctor knows what s/he is talking about. 

9. Pathos = an emotional argument • An effective use of pathos will alter the mindsets of the audience through the use of emotional appeal. • Both words and pictures can achieve this appeal.  In this picture, Haitian children are collecting water.  Children and adults spend all day digging for water because most of Haiti does not have access to water.

10. Pathos • Pathos: Pathos is related to the words pathetic, sympathy and empathy.  • Whenever you accept a claim based on how it makes you feel without fully analyzing the rationale behind the claim, you are acting on pathos.  • Those who wish to persuade you will play with your emotions. They may persuade you with fear, love, patriotism, guilt, hate or joy. • A majority of arguments in the popular press are heavily dependent on appealing to your emotions.  We, as a society, should not react to emotional arguments without fully considering all of the facts.  • Although the use of pathos can be manipulative, it is the cornerstone of moving people to action and it will continue to be used again and again.

11. LogosLogos means logic • Logos refers to any attempt to appeal to the intellect. • Logos appeals to the left side of the audience's brain.  The audience finds certain patterns, conventions and modes of reasoning to be convincing and persuasive.  The audience relies on reasoning and facts to make its decision.  Numbers, polls and statistics are also examples of the persuasive use of logic. 

12. REVIEWEthos, Pathos and Logos 1. Ethos = an ethical or moral argument 2. Pathos = an emotional argument 3. Logos = a logical argument

13. When you engage in rhetoric, you are related to the audience and your subject. A well-balanced argument gives attention to all three points of the triangle, establishing your authority (ethos), drawing the audience emotionally (pathos), and doing justice to the facts (logos). However, if you give too much emphasis to facts, you can fall into a kind of distortion: making the subject seem cold and abstract. If you lean too much toward the audience, you can start to create propaganda. And if you put to much emphasis on your own character and values, you will seem egotistical. The Rhetorical Triangle Possible Distortion: Abstraction Logos Subject Speaker Audience Ethos Pathos Possible Distortion: Propaganda Possible Distortion: Egotism

14. In the beginning… • Welcome. I’m Aristotle. I’ll be your host as we explore the world of the Enthymeme. I have a bit of experience in this arena, with rhetoric and science in particular.

15. I wrote a few books in my day. • On Rhetoric • The Poetics • Metaphysics • There are a few others, but I won’t bother you with those titles. You get the idea.

16. Instead, I’d like to talk about Enthymemes. • Enthymemes are rhetorical syllogisms (we’ll talk about these soon), but honestly, I’m rather vague with a concrete definition. • However, Ann Gill provides a good one for us: “arguments in syllogistic form that use implied premises held by the audience.”

17. Enthymemes are also called “truncated syllogisms” since they’re shortened. One or more premise is “held in the mind.” • I explain them like this: “the conclusion should not be drawn from far back, nor is it necessary to include everything…the latter tiresome because of stating what is obvious.” • Here are a few examples…

18. “But Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.” – Mark Antony from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar • - missing link: honourable men are ambitious • “If the glove doesn’t fit, you must acquit.” - attorney Johnny Cochran in the O.J. Simpson trial • - missing link: If the glove doesn’t fit the defendant, you must acquit him

19. To understand Enthymemes, let’s first examine the Syllogism. • (“Armed with her Sword of Syllogism, Bow of Questions, and Sonorous Voice which broadcasts her well-formed premises to all who may be in hearing range, Logic leaves the conundrums of Parmenides behind…She follows her trusty dogs, Truth and Falsehood, as they give chase to the Problem at hand, and thus avoids getting lost in the tangled Woods of Opinion.” - from B. Becker’s History of Science website)

20. I claim that a Syllogism “is wholly from propositions.” Again, Ann provides a good synopsis for our talk: “the conclusion is derived directly from information already present in the premises.” • (hopefully she won’t ask for royalties) • I use a relatively famous historical figure to illustrate how they work. • (used with permission from the Socratic Talent Agency)

21. Here’s the basic layout of a Syllogism • First, there’s a Major Premise: • e.g., “All men are mortal.” • Next, there’s a Minor Premise: • e.g., “Socrates is a man.” • Finally, a logical Conclusion (from premises): • e.g., “Socrates is mortal.”

22. What we just saw is called a Categorical Syllogism because we logically deduced a conclusion based on a comparison of characteristics (or categories): Men and Socrates. • Other types of Syllogisms include: • a. Hypothetical • b. Disjunctive • c. Conditional

23. Let’s try another Syllogism, shall we? • Major Premise: Bad children get spankings. • Minor Premise: You’ve been bad. • Conclusion: You’re going to get a spanking.

24. To make this an Enthymeme, one of the premises is eliminated (“held in the mind”). In this case, children know what will happen to them if they’re bad. • Bad children get spankings. • You’ve been bad. • You’re going to get a spanking. • And now, the final product: “You’ve been bad, so you’re going to get a spanking.”

25. Some Enthymemes are simple, while others are rather complex. • Sometimes the Major Premise is eliminated, while other times it’s the Minor Premise. • Likewise, and somewhat debated, the Conclusion is “held in the mind.” • But wait! There’s more…

26. To make things interesting, I also describe • two types of Enthymemes: • Demonstrative: proving an affirmative or negative proposition • Refutative: disproving an affirmative or negative proposition

27. Demonstrative Enthymemes combine compatible propositions in order to prove something. • This type of enthymeme makes assumptions and draws conclusions. The conclusions, then, “demonstrate” the logic.

28. Refutative Enthymemes join incompatible (opposite) propositions in order to disprove something or show a contradiction. • This structure positions two opposing arguments side-by-side so audiences can see the apparent incompatibilities. • The refutative enthymeme draws conclusions not from what is assumed, but what is shown.

29. Enthymemes are based on 4 kinds of Fact: • 1.Probabilities what is, or supposed to be, usually true • 2. Examples • induction provides similar cases, state proposition, and argue deductively to a particular inference • 3. Infallible Signs • argue from inevitable and invariable • 4. Ordinary Signs • argue from some or particular universal proposition, true or false

30. Enthymemes work because the rhetor and audience share something in common. Usually this is knowledge. This knowledge can be found in: • universal principles (Newtonian physics) • common values (illegal acts) • niche specific (html coding), or • common sense (“fire is hot, don’t touch”)

31. Enthymemes are communal entities, created by the society in which they are spoken, written, or shown. • Like language, they work only when the community knows and understands what is left unstated (“held in the mind”). • In this same vein, Enthymemes can fail if the receivers do not make the connection.

32. The more you work with Enthymemes, the more they become obvious and clear. • And addictive. • And annoying. • (at least to those who hear you mumble “okay, that’s the minor premise and there’s the conclusion, so the major premise must be…”) • Wow. We’ve covered a lot thus far.

33. Let’s do a quick review: • 1. I’m dead. • (nothing new there) • 2. Syllogisms contain a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion, the most common type being categorical. • 3. Enthymemes are “truncated syllogisms” since one premise is “held in the mind” of the audience.

34. And… • 4. There are two types of Enthymemes: demonstrative and refutative. • 5. Enthymemes are based on four types of facts: probabilities, examples, infallible signs, and ordinary signs. • 6. Enthymemes function in communities of rhetors that share similar knowledge.

35. Having fun yet? • I am. • (can’t you tell from my smile??) • In my time, Enthymemes were mainly used in the rhetoric (spoken word) of the day. Since this is the 21st century, I thought it might be fun to see if we could identify Enthymemes in that curious thing you call advertising. Let’s begin with some propaganda posters from WW I and WW II.

36. Premise: “Lend them [the soldiers] a hand.” • Premise: “Buy war bonds.” • Conclusion (unstated): You can do your part and help fight in the war by buying war bonds.

37. Premise (unstated): Non-unified armies fail. • Premise: Together we [the branches of armed forces] win. • Conclusion: We stand together (represented visually).

38. Premise (unstated): Wasting fuel supports the enemy. • Premise: “When you ride ALONE you ride with Hitler [which wastes fuel that could be used by American troops battling Hitler]. • Conclusion: Joining a Car-Sharing Club conserves fuel and supports the American troops.

39. Premise: If Germany wins the war, religious freedom will disappear. • Premise: War Bonds help in the war effort. • Conclusion (unstated): Buying war bonds saves religious freedom.

40. These posters were a good introduction because they primarily relied on pathos: • a. either the fear of something happening based on an action • or • b. the patriotism from doing “one’s part” in the war

41. Are you beginning to see how the interpretation of visual and verbal symbols is crucial to seeing the logic of the advertisement? • Interpretation is key. Likewise, one may interpret the premises slightly differently and still end up with the same overall conclusion. That’s the power of symbols! • Let’s now look at some current ads…

42. Premise: Cubist paintings are classic. • Premise: This Cubist image utilizes Reeboks. • Conclusion (unstated): Reeboks are classic shoes. • (or wearing them makes you feel like a classy individual, or that you have class, depending upon interpretation)

43. Premise: In a crisis, sometimes people “have to take matters into your [their] own hands.” • Premise: Those in a crisis “grab new body-heat activated Degree Gel.” • Conclusion (unstated): Degree Gel keeps you calm in moments of crisis.

44. Premise (unstated): America needs new leadership. • Premise: “Help is on the way.” • Conclusion: John Kerry will be that help [in the form of new leadership].

45. If you walk away from this video and remember only one thing, this should be it: • BE A CRITICAL CONSUMER. • Knowing how enthymemes work in advertising allows viewers to better understand the role persuasion plays in politics, advertising, history, speech acts, visual communication, and other common discourse arenas.

46. I think my work is done here. I’m going to go ponder something now (that’s what we philosophers do). • Go forthwith and become a critical consumer. You have the tools. Don’t be afraid to use them. • Hmmm…was that an enthymeme?

47. References • Aristotle. (1991). On rhetoric: A theory of civic discourse (G. A. Kennedy, Trans.). New York: Oxford University. • Gill, A. (1994). Rhetoric and human understanding. Prospect Heights: Waveland. • The producer / director / writer would like to thank his wife Heather, his mother-in-law Sharron, and Microsoft for their help in catching typos, as well as Dr. Rice for his suggestions and technological expertise. • No animals or Greek statues were harmed in the making of this movie.

48. Epilogue • Due to the success of his treatises and university, Aristotle hasn’t been seen since filming ended in mid July. He released this statement through his agent: “I must think.” No word on the topic. • Socrates still drank the hemlock. • Advertising is still around.

49. Aristotle will return.