Topic 2 The Studies of EAP: A Historical Overview

1. Topic 2The Studies of EAP: A Historical Overview EDM 6209 Policy Study in Education

2. The concept of intentional cognition in cognitive science “Intentional cognition may be defined in brief as the voluntary direction of mental effort.” (Bereiter & Scardamelia, 2002, p.248) Historical Overview: What is it for?

3. The concept of intentional cognition in cognitive science Building up intentional cognition in the field of EAP Historical overview serves as metacognitive Historical Overview: What is it for?

4. The origin of public administration and policy From the Prince’s advisor to social physicistFrom Niccolo Machiavilli (1469-1527) The Prince (1532) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Leviathan (1651) to August Comte (1798-1857) Treatise of Sociology (1851) The Dawn of Educational Administration and Policy

5. Niccolo Machiavilli (1469-1527) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

6. August Comte (1798-1857)

7. The origin of public administration and policy From the Prince’s advisor to social physicistFrom Niccolo Machiavilli (1469-1527) The Prince (1532) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Leviathan (1651) to August Comte (1798-1857) Treatise of Sociology (1851) In 1905, the fall of the tradition of literati and mandarin, which can be traced to 孔子,墨子or even 九流十家as the origin of public administration and policy in China. US Government sponsored the Franklin Institute to study the causes of explosions in steamboat boilers in 1832 The rise and fall of the American Social Science Association (ASSA) 1865-1915 The Dawn of Educational Administration and Policy

8. The origin of education administration William Harold Payne (Superintendent of Schools in Adrian, Michigan) published Chapters on School Supervision in 1875 William Harris (Superintendent of Schools in St. Louis) launched the Journal of Speculative Philosophy and published Psychologic Foundations of Education: An attempt to show the genesis of the higher faculties of the mind in 1898 A science of education and management as envisaged by practitioners. The Dawn of Educational Administration and Policy

9. B.Scientific Movement of EAP

10. The rise and constitution of policy science • The initiatives around the WWI: • Upon President Wilson's request, National Research Council was established in 1916 to assist the government to fight WWI • Establishment of the Social Science Research Council in 1923 and the Brookings Institute in December, 1927. • Charles Merriam's advocacy in his Presidential address in American Political Science Association in 1925 for researches of applied and multidisciplinary social science on social problems

11. The rise and constitution of policy science • The Post-WWII and Cold-War initiatives: • The success of Operations Research (OR) and Psychology of War in WWII and the rise of “management science” • The Congress initiated the establishment of National Science Foundation (NSF) in 1950 to serve as instrument to sponsor scientific research informing public policy • Harold Lasswell coined the concept of “policy science” in an article in 1951.

13. The rise and constitution of policy science • Harold Lasswell’s three-perspective formulation of The Policy Orientation (1951) in the book Policy Sciences edited by him and Daniel Lerner • Multidisciplinary Perspective • Contextual and Problem-Oriented Perspective • The Normative Perspective

14. The rise and constitution of policy science • Developments of policy orientations from the 1950s to the 1960s • The theoretical hegemony of the economic analysis, system approach, and/or management science • The dominance of structural-functionalism and Robert K. Merton’s call for applied social science research and theories of middle range (1967) • Demarcation of knowledge in and of policy process, i.e. policy analysis and policy-process analysis

15. The rise and constitution of policy science • Developments of policy orientations from the 1950s to the 1960s • Stokey, E. & Zeckhauser, R. (1978) A Primer for PolicyAnalysis. New York: W.W. Norton. • Quade, E.S. (1975) Analysis for Public Decisions. New York: Elsever. • David Easton’s conception of political system (1953) • Robert Dahl’s thesis of polyarchy and pluralism

16. The Theory Movement and the constitution of the Science of Education Administration • The Origin: Quest for empirical science of education administration • Max Weber’s (1864-1920) theory of rationalization of the occident and his study bureaucracy

18. The Theory Movement and the constitution of the Science of Education Administration • The Origin: Quest for empirical science of education administration • Max Weber’s (1864-1920) theory of rationalization of the occident and his study bureaucracy • Frederick W. Taylor's published his article "A piece-rate system" in 1895 and the beginning of the scientific-management movement in management study. • J.M. Rice's time-on-task study and fact-gathering surveys on schools • Elton Mayo and F. Roethlisberger conducted the famous Hawthron study and Mayo published The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization in 1933. The constitution of the Human Relation Approach in management study • Paul Mort's study on Adoptability of Public School Systems in 1938

19. The Theory Movement & the constitution of the science of Educational Administration • The theory movement in the 1950s • The establishment of the Cooperative Program in Educational Administration (CPEA) in 1947 • Jacob Getzel published the article "A psycho-sociological framework for the study of educational administration” in Harvard Educational Review in 1952 • Andrew Halpin's study on leader behavior and leadership ideology of educational administrators in 1955 • In 1957 NCPEA published a collection of essays entitled Administrative Behavior in Education, which echoed Herbert Simon’s work Administrative Behavior in 1945. • Deniel Griffiths published Administrative Theory in 1959

20. The Theory Movement & the constitution of the science of Educational Administration • The methodological stance of the Theory Movement (Cullerston, 1983 p. 15) • Scientific theories treat phenomena as they are. • Effectiveness research has its origins in theory and is guided by theory. • Hypothetic-deductive method are the best exemplars of theory. • The use of social sciences is essential in theory development and training. • Administration is best viewed as a generic concept applicable to all types of organization.

21. The Theory Movement & the constitution of the science of Educational Administration • The advent of the “new orthodoxy” • Meyer and Scott's emphasis on Environments and Organization (1978) and the replacement of “closed system” by “open system” • Wayne Hoy and Cecil Miskel's theory on school as open system (1978) • The contradiction between ontological complexity and epistemological capacity within the “new orthodoxy”

22. C.Critiques on the Scientific Movement of EAP

23. Critiques on policy science from within • Charles Lindblom’s science of muddling through (1959/1979) • Herbert Simon’s conception of bounded rationality and the principle of satisficing (1957) • Aaron Wildavsky’s (1969) critique on program-planning-budgeting system (PPBS) in Public Administration Review, Vol. 29 • Pressman & Wildavsky (1973) Implementation.

25. Challenges of policy science from policy reality (deLeon, 1988) • The rise an fall of projects of the Great Society and the War on Poverty in the 1960s • The defeat in Vietnam War and challenge of the omnipotence and controllability of operation science in war by guerilla warfare • The Watergate scandals and the fall of the integrity of the government • The energy crisis and the environmental movement and the challenge to the omniscience of science and the omnipotence of engineering

26. Challenges to the scientific-system based theory movement in Ed Administration • The Greenfield Revolt: The phenomenological challenge Thomas Greenfield's presentation "Organization theory as ideology" in an International Inter-visitation Program in Bristol in 1974. In the paper, Greenfield's claimed • Phenomenological rather positivist/realist approach organization • Value-laden rather than value-free in inquiry to organization • Theory building as paradigm building rather than objective and neutral truth-finding process

28. Challenges to the scientific-system based theory movement in ed administration • The impact of the 1st Coleman’s Report (1965-66) • Emergence of politically and legally controversial education issues, e.g. school segregation • The challenge to the "is-ought" and "fact-value" dichotomy and the de-mystification of the value-free ideology in educational administration

29. The first Coleman Report 1965-66 Policy research on inequality of Educational Opportunity Design of effective policy ends and intervention measures The second Coleman Report in 1975 AERA annual conference Policy research on the phenomenon of the White Flight Controversy over the unwanting findings The third Coleman Report in 1980 Policy research on the effectiveness of public and private schools The argumentative turn of the report James S. Coleman’s odyssey of research in education policy, 1960s to 1980s

30. “There are two fundamentally different schools of thoughts concerning the role of scientific research. … One school of thought sees policy research as private dialogue between the policy maker and the policy researcher. The policy makers poses the problem and the questions, and the policy researchers acts as adviser to the prince, to answer the questions on the basis of existing scientific knowledge if possible, and if not, to gather the right kind of data and analyze it properly to arrive at a conclusive answer. This conception of a clear, orderly process, with the final stage being implementation of the policy researcher’s results. The scientific answers are conclusive, sources of controversy are stilled by the conclusiveness of the research results, and rational action based on scientific evidence replaces interest group politics.

31. “The other school of thought – the one to which we subscribe – see policy research as a largely public activity, one in which there is no ‘policy maker’, and in which the policy researcher’s role is that of the servant of multiple interests. …The contribution of the policy research to the end result is that of raising the level of discourse which leads to policy: facilitating disposal of false issues, narrowing attention and political conflict to the important issues. The research results cannot specify policy to be implemented; they are only one of a number of input which makes that process a more open one, helping to provide a window to the consequences of policy that enables more persons to effectively press for their interests and ideals.” (Coleman, et al., 1982, p.220-221)

32. Challenges to the scientific-system based theory movement in ed administration • Christopher Hodgkinson's philosophical and ethical challenge • Hodgkinson published Towards a Philosophy of Administration in 1978 • Philosophy of educational administration and leadership consists of two components: logic and value • Hodgkinson's typology of values • Type I value: Value as matter of principle • Type II value: Value as matter of rationality • Type IIa value: Rationality based on the desirability of consequences • Type IIb value: Rationality based on quantitative-based consensus of the concerned collectivity • Type III value: Value as individual's preferences

33. Challenges to the scientific-system based theory movement in ed administration • The Marxian challenge • Richard Bates (1982) critiques the orthodox administration theory as conservative and anachronistic • Emphasis on contradiction and conflict in organization • Emphasis on dominant and power in administration • Challenge from Critical Theory • William Foster's Habermasian contribution (1980) • Distinction between communicative rationality in the life world and the functional rationality in the systems • Administrative system of the state and the medium of power • Economic system of market and the medium of money • Communicative ethics in educational administration

34. D.Challenges from the Neoliberal Reforms and Responses of EAP

35. The DPM public sector reform • Deregulation • Decentralization • Privatization • Marketization

36. From policy analysis to policy discourse • The Postpositivist challenge • Frank Fischer (1980) Politics, Values, and Public Policy: The Problem of Methodology • Frank Fischer & John Forester (1987) Confronting Values in Policy Analysis • John Forester (1989) Planning in the Face of Power

37. From policy analysis to policy discourse • The linguistic and argumentative turns • Majone, Giandomencio (1989) Evidence, Arguments, and Persuasion in Policy Process. • Frank Fischer & John Forester (1993) The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning. • Schon Donald & Martin Rein (1994) Frame Reflection: Toward the Resolution of Intractable Policy Controversies. • Roe, Emery (1993) Narrative Policy Analysis: Theory and Practice. • Frank Fischer (2003) Reframing Public Policy: Discursive politics and deliberative practices • Edwards, Richard et al. (2004) Rhetoric and Educational Discourse: Persuasive Texts? • Stephen J. Ball (1994) Education Reform: A Critical and post-structural approach

38. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • The movement of standardization and performativity: The case of the US (Murphy & Forsyth, 1999) • The National Policy Board for Educational Administration published Improving the Preparation of School Administrators: An Agenda for Reform in 1989 • The National Commission for the Principalship published Principals for Changing Schools: Preparation and Certification in 1990 • The National Policy Board for Educational Administration published Principals for Our Changing Schools: The Knowledge and Skill Base in 1993 • The Council for Chief State School Officers introduced The Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium: Standard for School Leadership in 1996

39. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Three approaches to school administration in the decade of education reform • The School Effectiveness approach • Research efforts revealing statistically significant school attributes to students’ performance • OFSTED’s (Office for Standards in Education) commission I: P. Sammons, J. Hillman & P. Mortimore (1996) Key Characteristics of Effective Schools

40. (Sammons, 1996)

41. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Three approaches to school administration in the decade of education reform • The School Effectiveness approach • Research efforts revealing statistically significant school attributes to students’ performance • OFSTED’s (Office for Standards in Education) commission I: P. Sammons, J. Hillman & P. Mortimore (1996) Key Characteristics of Effective Schools • OFSTED’s commission II: D. Reynold & S Farrell produced World Apart? A Review of International Surveys of Educational Achievement Involving England (1996)

42. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Three approaches to school administration in the decade of education reform • School Restructuring approach • Joseph Murphy’s conceptualization of school restructuring • Marketization • Redesigning work and defining roles • Core technology building

43. Marketization Building Technological Core Redesign work Redefine role (Murphy, 1991)

44. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Three approaches to school administration in the decade of education reform • School Restructuring approach • Joseph Murphy’s conceptualization of school restructuring • Marketization • Redesigning work and defining roles • Core technology building • Charles Reavis and Harry Griffith’s seven elements of school restructuring

45. (Reavis & Griffith1992)

46. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Three approaches to school administration in the decade of education reform • School as learning organization • Kenneth Leithwood’s conception of learning organization • Peter Senge’s The Fifth Discipline of the learning organization

47. (Leithwood, et al., 1998)

48. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Bringing the community, person, and value back in • Thomas J. Sergiovanni (2000) The Lifeworld of Leadership: Creating Culture, Community, and Personal Meaning in Our Schools

49. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Bringing the community, person, and value back in • Anthony Bryke and Schneider Barbara (2002) Trust in Schools: A Core Resource for Improvement

50. From “Theory Movement” to “Standard Movement” • Bringing the community, person, and value back in • Nel Noddings (2005) The Challenge to Care in Schools: An Alternative Approach to Education