Adrenal Anatomy

1. Adrenal Anatomy • small, triangular glands loosely attached to the kidneys • divided into two morphologically and distinct regions • adrenal cortex (outer) • adrenal medulla (inner)

3. Adrenal Medulla Lecture Objectives: • what are the adrenal medulla hormones? • what are their endocrine effects? • what is pheochromocytoma?

4. Anatomy and Origin • embryologically derived from pheochromoblasts • differentiate into modified neuronal cells • acts like sympathetic ganglion • more gland than nerve • chromaffin cells

5. Function of the Adrenal Medulla • an extension of the sympathetic nervous system • acts as a peripheral amplifier • activated by same stimuli as the sympathetic nervous system (examples – exercise, cold, stress, hemorrhage, etc.)

6. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla • adrenaline, epinephrine • noradrenaline, norepinephrine • 80% of released catecholamines are epinephrine • Hormones are secreted and stored in the adrenal medulla and released in response to appropriate stimuli

7. tyrosine dihydroxyphenylalanine dopamine norepinephrine epinephrine Catecholamine Synthesis tyrosine hydroxylase L-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase dopamine-B-hydroxylase phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase

8. Mechanism of Action • receptor mediated – adrenergic receptors • peripheral effects are dependent upon the type and ratio of receptors in target tissues Relative effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine on  and  adrenergic receptors. Guyton

9. Differences between Epinephrine and Norepinephrine • Epinephrine >> norepinephrine – in terms of cardiac stimulation leading to greater cardiac output ( stimulation). • Epinephrine < norepinephrine – in terms of constriction of blood vessels – leading to increased peripheral resistance – increased arterial pressure. • Epinephrine >> norepinephrine –in terms of increasing metabolism Epi = 5-10 x Norepi. = 100% normal

10. Effects of Epinephrine • metabolism • glycogenolysis in liver and skeletal muscle • mobilization of free fatty acids • increased metabolic rate • can lead to hyperglycemia • O2 consumption increases

11. Pheochromocytoma • a catecholamine-secreting tumour of chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla • paraganglioma – a catecholamine secreting tumour of the sympathetic paraganglia adrenal pheochromocytoma (90%) extra-adrenal pheochromocytoma

12. Signs and Symptoms of Pheochromocytoma • treatment resistant hypertension (95%) • headache • sweating • palpitations • chest pain • anxiety • glucose intolerance • increased metabolic rate classic triad

13. Diagnosis and Treatment • diagnosed by high plasma catecholamines and increased metabolites in urine • no test for adrenal or extra-adrenal • treatment is surgical resection

14. The Adrenal Cortex Lecture Objectives: • identify the regional production of adrenal cortex hormones • what are the physiological actions of cortisol? • what are Addison’s Disease and Cushing’s syndrome?

15. Adrenal Cortex • Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex are referred to as corticosteroids. • These comprise mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and androgens. • The cortex is divided into three regions: • zona glomerulosa • zona fasciculata • zona reticularis

16. Zona Glomerulosa • Outermost zone – just below the adrenal capsule • Secretes mineralocorticoids. • Mineralocorticoids are aptly termed as they are involved in regulation of electrolytes in ECF. • The naturally synthesized mineralocorticoid of most importance is aldosterone.

17. Zona Fasciculata • Middle zone – between the glomerulosa and reticularis • Primary secretion is glucocorticoids. • Glucocorticoids, as the term implies, are involved the increasing of blood glucose levels. However they have additional effects in protein and fat metabolism. • The naturally synthesized glucocorticoid of most importance is cortisol.

18. Zona Reticularis • Innermost zone – between the fasciculata and medulla • Primary secretion is androgens. • Androgenic hormones exhibit approximately the same effects as the male sex hormone – testosterone. NB.: Overlap in the secretions of androgens and glucocorticoids exist between the fasciculata and reticularis.

20. HO O CH2OH C = O OH HO O Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex • all adrenal cortex hormones are steroid • not stored, synthesized as needed testosterone cortisol

21. Aldosterone • a steroid hormone • essential for life (acute) • responsible for regulating Na+ reabsorption in the distal tubule and the cortical collecting duct • target cells are called “principal (P) cell” - stimulates synthesis of more Na/K-ATPase pumps

23. Effects of Aldosterone • Renal and circulatory effects … covered (ECF volume regulation, sodium and potassium ECF concentrations) • Promotes reabsorption of sodium from the ducts of sweat and salivary glands during excessive sweat/saliva loss. • Enhances absorption of sodium from the intestine esp. colon. – absence leads to diarrhea.

24. Regulation of Aldosterone Release • direct stimulators of release • indirect stimulators of release (RAAS) • increased extracellular K+ • decreased osmolarity • ACTH • decreased blood pressure • decreased macula densa blood flow

25. Glucocorticoids - Cortisol • a steroid hormone • essential for life (long term) • the net effects of cortisol are catabolic - plasma bound to corticosteroid binding globulin (CGB or transcortin) • prevents against hypoglycemia

26. Physiological Actions of Cortisol • promotes gluconeogenesis • promotes breakdown of skeletal muscle protein • enhances fat breakdown (lipolysis) • suppresses immune system • breakdown of bone matrix (high doses)

27. Anti-inflammatory Effects of Cortisol • reduces phagocytic action of white blood cells • reduces fever • suppresses allergic reactions • wide spread therapeutic use

28. Effect on Blood Cells and Immunity • Decrease production of eoisinophils and lymphocytes • Suppresses lymphoid tissue systemically therefore decrease in T cell and antibody production thereby decreasing immunity • Decrease immunity could be fatal in diseases such as tuberculosis • Decrease immunity effect of cortisol is useful during transplant operations in reducing organ rejection.

29. Regulation of Cortisol Release • cortisol release is regulated by ACTH • release follows a daily pattern - circadian • negative feedback by cortisol inhibits the secretion of ACTH and CRH

31. Regulation of Cortisol Release cont Enhanced release can be caused by: • physical trauma • infection • extreme heat and cold • exercise to the point of exhaustion • extreme mental anxiety

32. Adrenal Cortex Dysfunctions Hypoadrenalism – Addison’s Disease • adrenal cortex produces inadequate amounts of hormones • caused by autoimmunity against cortices 80% • also caused by tuberculosis, drugs, cancer • plasma sodium decreases and may lead to circulatory collapse

33. Mineralocorticoid Deficiency • Lack of aldosterone: • Increased sodium, chloride, water loss • Decrease ECF volume • Hyperkalemia • Mild acidosis • Increase RBC concentration • Decrease cardiac output – shock - death within 4 days to a 2 weeks if not treated

34. Glucocorticoid Deficiency • Loss of cortisol • Disruption in glucose concentration • Reduction in metabolism of fats and proteins • Patient is susceptible to different types of stress • Sluggishness of energy mobilization result in weak muscle even when glucose and other nutrients are available – cortisol is needed for metabolic function

35. Melanin Pigmentation • Characteristic of Addison’s disease is uneven distribution of melanin deposition in thin skin eg. Mucous membranes, lips, thin skin of the nipples. • Feedback and effect on MSH

36. Treatment • Total destruction, if untreated, could lead to death with a few days. • Treatment – small quantities of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids daily.

37. Hyperadrenalism – Cushing’s Syndrome • caused by exogenous glucocorticoids and by tumours (adrenal or pituitary) • zg tumour increases aldosterone • zr tumour increases cortisol • increased sodium, blood pressure • 80% suffer from hypertension - excess protein catabolism, redistribution of fat

38. Characteristics • Buffalo torso • Redistribution of fat from lower parts of the body to the thoracic and upper abdominal areas • Moon Face • Edematous appearance of face • Acne & hirsutism( excess growth of facial hair)

39. Effects on Carbohydrate Metabolism • “Adrenal diabetes” • Hypersecretion of cortisol results in increase blood glucose levels, up to 2 x normal (200mg/dl) • Prolonged oversecretion of insulin “burns out” the beta cells of the pancreas resulting in life long diabetes mellitus

40. Effects on Protein Metabolism • Decrease protein content in most parts of the body resulting in muscle weakness • In lymphoid tissue – decrease protein synthesis results in suppression of the immune system • Lack of protein deposition in bones can result in osteoporosis • Collagen fibers in subcutaneous tissue tear forming striae

41. Treatment • Removal of adrenal tumor if this is the cause • Microsurgical removal of hypertrophied pituitary elements to reduce ACTH secretion • Partial or total adrenalectomy followed by administration of adrenal steroids to compensate insufficiencies that develop