Presentation Transcript

1. Background to the present

2. Current situation No more Soviet Union. No more Warsaw Pact. No more European Communism. No more nuclear confrontation. New threats to security—terrorism, financial crisis. Energy as an issue in international politics.
3. What Russia is not Not USSR, but successor state to USSR under international law. No longer Superpower. Significantly smaller and less populous. No long ideological state. No longer totalitarian regime—significant aspects of democracy and free-market.
4. Russia’s bad reputation Empire with hundreds of subjugated peoples. Lenin called Russian Empire “prison of nations” Total autocracy. Marquis de CustineEmpire of the Czar: “I went to Russia seeking arguments in favour of autocracy, and returned as an advocate of constitutions.” Not to mention reputation of Soviet regime.
5. Not so simple: russia Victim as well as aggressor. History interpreted both ways.
6. How and why did Russia become so huge and so autocratic? Size and autocratic past unique. Not entirely predetermined, but definitely no accident. What factors drove development of Russian state, and explain why it became the kind of state it was, and perhaps in part still is? Environment: Geography, hostile neighbours. Ruling formula taken over from the Mongols.
7. Environment
8. Choices within given enviroment Rulers, facing historically-given situations, made choices that shaped future development—Ivan I (Kalita), Ivan III, Ivan the Terrible, Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, Lenin, Stalin. Enduring environmental factors—themes that persist throughout state’s development. Mongol ruling formula for vast empire. Social psychology of rulers and ruled.
9. Real, influential, and persistent over time, but not unchanging Russia, like all countries, heavily influenced by history and culture of rulers and ruled. Shaped by its environment, and in turn alters its environment. Traditions, bureaucratic and governmental structures established early on have inertial qualities. Yet peoples and states constantly changing.
10. National character: What is Heaven? English policemen, French chefs, German auto mechanics, Italian lovers, All organized by the Swiss.
11. National character: What is Hell? German policemen, English chefs, French auto mechanics, Swiss lovers, All organized by Italians.
12. Scholars commissioned by UNESCO to write about “the elephant” English: Hunting the elephant in India. French: La vie sexuelle de l’elephant. German: Preface to an introduction to the philosophy of the elephant in 6 volumes. American: How to make the best use of the elephant without annoying it. Spaniard: The elephant’s conception of honor.
13. Common wisdom about Germany Germany can never become a democracy. Defeat of Romans in Battle of Teutoberger Wald--absence of civilizing Roman culture. Militaristic, authoritarian traditions of Prussian state. Behavior in recent history. Russia now cast in similar role.
14. Change and inertia Revolution, Collectivization and modernization significantly destroyed traditional Russian culture and institutions. Yet tradition and enduring structures still exert enormous, largely subterranean influence. Environment has changed enormously, but much remains unchanged. Important to recognize enduring and changing aspects.
15. The Mongol ruling formula and the Tatar yoke
16. Mongol invasion and Tatar Yoke Mongol invasion: 1237 Batu Khan annihilation of Ryazan, Vladimir-Suzdal, Kolomna and Moscow, ransacked fourteen cities of modern-day Russia. 1240 stormed Kiev. “Tatar Yoke” 300 years--invasions not frequent but, when occurred, caused incalculable devastation and suffering. 1480, Ivan III refused to pay tribute to Great Khan, awaited Tatar onslaught, Golden Horde did not return.
17. KievanRus
18. Mongol invasion
19. Muscovy now most united and powerful force on Eurasian land mass Long years of spadework under the Mongol-Tatars had united Russia behind Moscow. Gradual evolution of new, revolutionary concept of society, government, and administration. Mongolian state built upon principle of unquestioning submission of individual to group, to clan and through the clan to whole state. Tatars continued to attack and harass Moscow, but it had become most united, powerful force on the Eurasian land mass, even able to advance on Asia.
20. Struggle no other nation endured 3 centuries that following proclamation of full sovereignty – “continuous, relentless struggle such as no other nation has had to endure in modern times” (TiborSzamuely, The Russian Tradition) Time of endless, inconclusive wars against enemies who never faded away; of conflicts which do not come within the familiar categories of aggressive and defensive wars, or snug pigeon-holes of just and unjust wars.
21. All of the above, none of the above Not wars of territorial expansion or wars of resistance to aggression. Not colonial wars nor wars of national liberation. Neither civil wars nor foreign wars. Not aimed at achieving unification or attaining natural frontiers. None of the above and all of the above.
22. Wars without end State of never-ending war gave Russian society its distinctive form. Armed struggle waged, usually simultaneously, on 3 fronts: south, east, and southeast. Most difficult and long time, least successful, was contest with traditional western enemies: Poland, Lithuania and Sweden.
23. Unsuccessful, inconclusive, disastrous Six wars with Sweden and twelve with Poland Lithuania. 200 years between the end of Tartar yoke and Peter the Great. Lasted for about 85 out of the 200 years--all except one or two either unsuccessful or inconclusive, two were disastrous. Enormously costly Livonian war of 1558-1583 led to "Time of Troubles“ beginning of 17th century. Moscow occupied, Russia seemed to have disintegrated once again.
24. Realization of need for European technology Russia finally realized from its wars in the West that, without Western methods and European technology, she would never be a match for her smaller and potentially far weaker neighbors.
25. Triumph in east and south-east Stalemate in west partly compensated by triumph in east and south-east. By end 15th century Golden Horde broken into 3 independent Khanates--Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia--1550s Ivan the Terrible destroyed them and annexed territory to Muscovy. Road clear for colonization of vast spaces of middle and upper Volga, the Ufa and the Kama, and for mass migration of Russian peasants to these new and more fertile lands.
26. Russia’s south—Ottoman Empire
27. Constant danger in the south Great expanse of fertile steppe (or plain) between Dnieper and the Volga undisputed domain of nomadic horsemen. Fierce Tartar and Turkic tribes roamed steppes for hundreds of years, attacking Russian settlements. Backing them was enormous power of Crimean Khanate and mighty Turkish Empire. Every year Tartar cavalry would swoop out of steppes, penetrating deep into Russian territory. Moscow itself captured and sacked several times.
28. Any inhabitant left in Russia? Constant and devastating raids had one object: slaves. Year after year unending procession of young Russians disappeared into Crimea. Eyewitness account tells of an old money-lender in Perekop, gateway to Crimea, who, after having for many years seen countless thousands of slaves pass by his house, asked whether there was still any inhabitant left in his land.
29. Drained Russia’s life blood 300 years In south endless, cruel war fought--for 300 years drained Russia's life-blood, and left indelible mark on whole pattern of her existence. Already discussed Mongol invasion that ravaged southern Russia with destructive fury that eradicated practically every vestige of Kievan civilization.
30. Frontier (ukraina) terror, death, destruction No historical experience has left as lasting an impression on folk-memory of Russians as the horrors of this endless struggle against the slave-takers and killers of the south. For centuries, steppe remained source of constant threat, land of terror, death, destruction and degradation. Called “Wild Plain,” or Frontier--greater part of region now called the Ukraine, another word for Frontier (ukraina or okraina)
31. Overriding objective: closing southern frontier Until 17th century, effective frontier passed along Oka river, about 150 kilometers from Moscow. As long as it existed, there could be no stability, no peace. Closing of southern frontier and establishment of security from Tartar attacks became and remained until the end of 18th century, all-important, overriding object of Russian State.
32. Struggle with Tatars close to concept of total war Task required total, constant and ruthless concentration of all national resources, human and material. Probably unparalleled in scope and intensity over comparable period of time, by any other nation. Struggle with Tartars nearer to modern concept of total war than anything else in pre- 20th century European history.
33. TiborSzamuely "If we consider the size and the general backwardness of the country, the scattered nature of its settlement, and the almost complete absence of roads, we can only marvel at the quality of organization and the degree of efficiency achieved."
34. University military service Military service obligatory and permanent, and non-appearance or insubordination punished with greatest severity. Permanent army defending Russia from Tartars throughout the 16th and 17th centuries usually consisted of 65,000 men.
35. Comparison with Medieval European practice 1467 German Emperor gathered army for all-out offensive against Turks, drawing all forces of numerous vassals—mustered 18,500—from population considerably larger than 16th century Russia. Battle of Crecy France (also population larger than Russia's) largest army yet seen in feudal Europe: 12,00 men. Army of First Crusade, on a tremendous wave of enthusiasm--30,000.
36. Beyond comparison with Europe All short-lived spurts of energy leaving those who mounted them utterly exhausted. Russia had to raise and maintain armed force much larger, not just for one isolated campaign, but for three hundred years continuously. Simultaneously conducting endless series of wars against more highly developed Western neighbors, also colonizing a continent.
37. System based on unquestioning obedience Serious disadvantages, and number and strength of enemies, counterbalanced only by evolution of political and social system capable of fully mobilizing Russia's poor and scattered resources, and converting into effective national power. Political system arose, based on unquestioning obedience and unlimited submission of subjects; on principle of obligations owed by each and every subject to the State.
38. Omnipotent state on meagre foundations "Compelling need," wrote Miliukov, "resulted in the creation of an omnipotent State on the most meager material foundations; this very meagerness constrained it to exert all the energies of its population--and in order to have full control over these energies it had to become omnipotent."
39. Tsar-autocrat Awesome sway and majesty of State embodied in person of autocratic ruler--Tsar of All the Russias. Tsar combined symbols of terrifying power with very real, extremely effective authority over life and welfare of every subject, regardless of degree or rank. Position of Tsar and State--one of unique strength: Sole and exclusive wielder and source of power; all authority in country emanated from him; he shared power with no one.
40. System ensured Moscow’s victory Every inhabitant of Empire not only the Tsar's subject, but by extrapolation, his slave. Fusion of sovereign and patrimonial landowner none other than political system described by Jean Bodin as seigneural monarchy: concept underlying despotic empires of the Orient. Development of this concept distinguished Moscow from the other Russian principalities, and largely ensured its victory.
41. Crystallization of Muscovite system—mid-16th century Astonishing growth in less than 300 years--from pitiful dependency of Khan under Ivan III, to mighty world power under Peter the Great--without any corresponding increase in resources. Called for unparalleled national effort--total concentration of nation's strength. Effected by State with unlimited despotic powers. Crystallization of Muscovite system, this distinctive form of autocracy, emerged, after lengthy germination, in mid-16th century.
42. Theory and practice—Ivan the Terrible Owes crystallization, both theory and practice to Ivan the Terrible. Left an imprint on Russia that over 400 years have not erased. Gave entirely new interpretation to title of autocrat Previously only meant sovereign ruler in own right, independent of any other ruler. Ivan took it to mean absolute, despotic ruler, governing country as he saw fit, with no bounds to authority over his subjects, their lives and their property.
43. Institutionalization of terror During Ivan's reign calculated use of terror--swift, widespread, unpredictable and relentless--for the first time became main instrument of Russian government. In such vast country, as sparsely populated, as turbulent, with vague frontiers, poor communications, meager resources and unstable social relationships, engaged in life or death struggle for national existence, sheer physical terror most efficacious way to sustain law and order, implement reforms, intensify national effort, and obtain unconditional submission.
44. Fear ensures obedience Where Western methods of government plainly impractical, certain amount of bloodletting, lurid enough to catch imagination, went far in instilling fear of God and the Tsar, in the most dull-witted subjects. Best method of producing fear, and fear was most reliable means of obedience. Under Ivan the Terrible previously blurred outline of State commanding totality of powers, with unlimited, unquestioned authority over every subject, took on clear, definite shape.
45. Centralized autocratic state—basic pattern of Russian history Centralized autocratic State held every aspect of nation's life in its grip. No room for autonomous activity of individual, local community, or social class. For centuries this was to remain basic pattern of Russian history.
46. Autocracy of necessity Autocracy and serfdom price Russians had to pay for survival. By time of emancipation from Mongols, framework of new structure all but ready and new order service-bound society clearly noticeable. Entirely new concept of society and its relation to state in Tsardom of Moscow of 16th and 17th centuries. All classes bound to service of state. Regimentation of social classes starting in Mongol period, based on Mongol principles of administration carried further and completed by Muscovy.
47. Summary of formative factors Constant, universally recognized need for defence—legitimation of autocracy. Assimilation of powerful Mongol ruling formula, including institutionalized terror as means of controlling large territories. Expansion as defence.
48. Time of Troubles Смутное время Breakdown of authority between reign of last Russian Tsar Feodor Ivanovich of Rurik Dynasty in 1598 and establishment of Romanov Dynasty in 1613. Russia occupied by Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, also suffered civil uprisings, usurpers and impostors.
49. Very critical condition Throne vacant; nobles (boyars) quarreled among themselves. Orthodox Patriarch imprisoned. Catholic Poles occupied Moscow Kremlin. Protestant Swedes occupied Novgorod. Continuing Tatar raids left south borderlands completely depopulated and devastated. Enormous bands of brigands swarmed everywhere.
50. Immense suffering Tens of thousands dying in battles and riots. 1611, Poles and German mercenaries suppressing riots in Moscow massacred 7,000 Muscovites and set the city on fire. Many other cities also devastated or weakened.
51. Patriotic uprising expels Poles Severity of crisis produced remedy--patriotic rising under leadership of KuzmaMinin and Prince Pozharsky. Polish army forced to retreat. The garrison in the Kremlin surrendered to the triumphant Pozharsky on November 4. Recently made national holiday--Day of National Unity.
52. Minin appeals for volunteer army against the Poles
53. Lessons learned Many puzzled that this obscure historical event was made into national holiday. Time of Troubles very important in Russian collective memory, and in Russian culture. This is what happens when we are weak and divided. Reminder Russia not always aggressor.
54. Change and inertia
55. Europe, modernization, and Russia Peter the Great: Forcing Russia into Europe—consider why. Napoleonic Wars: Shock of contact with European civilization. Russia backward indeed but forces of modernization operating relentlessly (emancipation of serfs, industrialization) Regime remains autocratic, yet continuing processes of mellowing.
56. Lenin’s perverse modernization Remember, Socialism and Communism Enlightenment ideologies. Lenin: Similar goals pursued by other means. Style of thought not unknown in West: (Get rid of the Bad Guys by any means, put the Good Guys in power). Rousseauean democracy: Whoever does not accept General Will forced to be free.
57. World War I devastation—start of tragic process Throws Russia into arms of Lenin’s Bolsheviks. Intense traditional loyalty to Tsar turns into hostility to regime. Combined devastation of World War, Civil War, famine, War Communism. Lenin not fully aware of monster he unleashed. Much of subsequent development unintended.
58. Centralized bureaucracy combined with monolithic ideology Ruthless means justified against enemies of the Revolution—just as Red Army defended against external enemies, CHEKA defended against internal enemies. Putting Stalin in charge of centralized bureaucracy enabled him to establish base of power. Lenin and Stalin inherited ruling mechanisms of Russian Empire.
59. Early Soviet foreign policy On world stage, Bolsheviks victims rather than aggressors. External intervention, Soviet Union pariah state. Brest-Litovsk: Surrender of huge chunk of European territory.
60. Main concern--consolidation of power From time of allied intervention growing tendency Bolsheviks to appeal to national sentiment. Of course on behalf of the new Russia, the Russia of the working people but unqualified internationalism of fist days after Revolution gone. Struggle to retain as much of Russia's territory as possible, then recover all territory of tsarist Russia conducted in name of fatherland--a socialist fatherland but still a fatherland.
61. Communist International COMINTERN March 1919. The International founded to fight "by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the State.”
62. Fear of Communism Resonated with disaffected, left-oriented individuals and movements throughout the world. Soviet regimes took advantage of this. Communist demon frightened defenders of status quo then and until end of Cold War. Comintern officially dissolved in 1943 to allay fears of wartime allies.
63. Communist ideology mistakenly confused with aims of Soviet state International Communist movement always subordinated to interests of Soviet state. Communist movement and Soviet state confused by outside observers. Ideological aims confused with aims of state. Fear of Communism and Soviet state confused. Concern with recognition of Soviet state—motivation to behave as conventional state. Perennial tension between COMINTERN and NAR-KOM-INDEL.
64. Stalin: “Socialism in one country” 1921-33 attention of the Soviet leaders turned inwards. Enormous domestic problems and power struggle eventually leading to Stalin's absolute dictatorship—no time or resources to devote to external affairs. Messianic urge and millenarian vision became weaker as Soviet rulers became absorbed in task of running own society.
65. Evolution of Stalin’s foreign policy In foreign policy Stalin first moved with characteristic wariness and caution. Not equipped for foreign policy making by either background or experience. Before long, however, the hand of the new master began to be felt. Control and organization were the key elements in Stalin's philosophy of power. No place in his system for a free-wheeling diplomat or a foreign Communist Party not tightly organized and controlled from Moscow.
66. Expansionism actually defensive in character Stalin’s need for buffer zone in Eastern Europe to prevent what had happened in World Wars I and II. Different meanings of spheres of influence. Brutality of Soviet conception. West mistook creation of buffer zone with Soviet expansionism. Correction of defeat of Brest-Litovsk. Restoring boundaries of Russian Empire.
67. Stalin exploited Communism, but it never described his real aims Attempt to use Communist parties in Eastern Europe politically. Failed. Indigenous Communists more interested in Yugoslav model than Soviet. Some parties accepted Marshall Plan. Bolshevization, imposition of monolithic model tore parties from indigenous bases, subordinated them to NKVD.
68. Military weakness and ideological weapon USSR militarily weak after World War II. Stalin used international Communist movement to compensate for military weakness. West took ideological offensive seriously—Truman responded to civil wars in Greece and Turkey threatening use of atomic weapons. Stalin’s response.
69. Mutual escalation of fear and suspicion West unable to distinguish Stalin’s concrete foreign policy aims from Communist propaganda offensive. Creation of Bi-zone in Germany in response to Soviet intransigence. Soviet introduction of East German currency. Creation of NATO Creation of Warsaw Pact.