Western Europe

1. Western Europe Continuity and Change Dardan, Deanna, Rea, Maheen, Kristin

2. 8000 BC – 600 CE - Dardan • 2,000 BC - Minoan - a Bronze Age civilization, arose on the island of Crete. The civilization reached its peak at about 2,000 BCE. • 2,000 BC – Extensive commerce between Egypt and Greece. • 1,600 BC - Mycenaean - The Mycenaean period fell between the arrival of the Greeks in the Aegean around 1600 BC and the collapse of their Bronze Age civilization around 1100 BC. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400 BC the Mycenaean’s extended their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form the Minoan script called Linear A to write their early form of Greek. They Mycenaean’s reached dominance on Crete between 1,500 and 800 BC. • 1,500-800 BC - period of Greek history from the presumed Dorian invasion and end of the Mycenaean Palatial civilization around 1200 BC, to the first signs of the Greek city-states in the 9th century BC. • 1,400 BC - Destruction of Knossos and end of Minoan Civilization. • 1,400 BC - a ten-year war waged by the confederated Greeks under Agamemnon against the Trojans to avenge the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, by Paris, son of the Trojan king Priam, and ending in the plundering and burning of Troy. • 1,200–1,100 - Collapse of Mycenaean civilization in Greece. • 800 BC - Beginning of city-states (polis) in Greece. It was a political entity ruled by its body of citizens. • 753 BC - Rome founded, a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula. • 750 BC – The Iliad and The Odyssey - stories of love and war, hope and despair, and honor and glory written by Homer. • 700 BC - Earliest Greek settlement in Egypt's Nile delta. • 650 BC - Shift from cavalry (horses) to infantry (soldiers) in Greece. • 650-500 BC - Doric architectural style (simple but strong structures). • 600 BC - Invention of coinage by Lydian's. • 600 BC - Thales of Miletus - a presocratic Greek philosopher and astronomer (predicted eclipse). • 594 BC – Reforms of Solon (lawgiver) in Athens. He faced improving the conditions of: debt-ridden farmers; laborers forced into bondage over debt, and the middle classes who were excluded from government. • 530 BC – Pythagoras - Greek philosopher, mathematician, and religious reformer. • 508 BC - Reforms of Cleisthenes in Athens- reformed the constitution of ancient Athens and set it on a democratic footing. • 500-400 BC - Ionic architectural style (Ionic order) – fancier and more delicate than Doric architecture.

3. 8000 BC – 600 CE - Dardan • 500 BC - Establishment of Roman Republic. • 490-479 BC –Greco-Persian War - series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and city-states of the Hellenic world. • 478-404 BC – Delian League - association of 173 Greek city-states under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plataea at the end of the Greco–Persian Wars. • 469 BC - Socrates – Athenian philosopher. • 460 BC – Pathenon - temple of the Greek goddess Athena. • 450 BC – Law of Twelve Tables - ancient legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. • 431-404 BC - Peloponnesian War - war between Athens and Sparta, that resulted in the transfer of hegemony (leadership) in Greece from Athens to Sparta. • 429 BC – Plato - Greek philosopher. • 400-300 BC - Corinthian style architecture – fancier and heavier than Ionic style, mainly used by the Romans. • 384 BC – Aristotle - Greek philosopher. • 338 BC - Macedonian conquest of Greece. • 334-323 BC - Conquests of Alexander the Great. • 323 BC - Death of Alexander, division of his empire. • 264-146 BC - Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage - resultied in the destruction of Carthage and the annexation of its territory by Rome. • 250-100 BC - Growth of slavery. • 183-145 BC – Greek invasion of India - The Greeks invaded India several times, starting with the conquest of Alexander the Great (trade between India and Greece flourished with silk, spices, and gold being traded). • 146 BC – Destruction of Carthage by Rome. • 146-60 BC - Introduction of Greek philosophy to Rome. • 46-44 BC - Dictatorship of Caesar in Rome. • 80 CE – The Colosseum. • 120 CE – The Pantheon - domed circular temple at Rome • 235-284 CE - Civil war in the Roman empire – resulted in reduction of legions.

4. 8000 BC – 600 CE - Dardan • 284-305 CE – Diocletian – Emperor of Rome; divided the empire into east and west (286) in an attempt to rule the territory more effectively; his desire to revive the old religion of Rome led to the last major persecution of the Christians (303). • 306-337 CE – Constantine I – Emperor of Rome; named Constantinople as the new capital; legally sanctioned Christian worship. • 311 CE - Beginning of toleration of Christians in Roman Empire. • 379-395 CE - Theodosius I - Roman emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. He prohibited pagan practices and in his will divided the empire between his two sons. • 380 CE - Christianity becomes the official Roman religion. • 410 CE – Visgoths sack Rome. (a member of the westerly division of the Goths, which formed a monarchy about 418, maintaining it in southern France until 507 and in Spain until 711.) • 476 CE - Deposition of last western Roman emporer. • 500-700 CE - Decline of towns and trade in the west. • 527-565 CE - Justinian – Byzantine Emperor. • 532-537 CE - Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia. • Change and Continuity – • Architectural Styles changed greatly as people experimented with different styles. They were interested in strong structure but also desired wealthy, fancy-looking structures. • In Ancient Rome, a great change was the observation of religion. At first the Christians were suppressed and prosecuted but only less than a century after, it became the main religion in the area. • City States/ Delian League • Some great examples of continuity were: Interaction, ideas, and philosophers. • Interaction: people interacted mainly for commerce. However, they also experienced problems which resulted in wars. • Idea and philosophers: they all improved on the previous person ideas and views.

5. 600 CE – 1450 CE - Deanna • Political • DecentralizationRoman Empire fallsByzantium splits into two regionsConstantinople falls to the TurksCharlemagne and Otto the Great revive the idea of empire and allied with the churchCharlemagne--> Holy Roman EmpirePower struggle between political leaders and popesfeudalism- form of government based on land owning, alliances between Lords and Vassals, ranking of power and authorityCanon Law- the law of the churchEngland and France developed strong central governments showing forms of democracy100 Years’ War weakened fuedal power • Economic • Invasions in the western half of the Roman Empire affected tradeBusiness collapsed, the cities fell, causing population shiftsThe Franks held powermanors- Lord’s estate, set of rights between serfs and lords, self-sufficient communityimprovements in farming: three-field system, use of horsesGold & Salt Trade • Religion • Islam (everywhere but Egypt and Ethiopia) and ChristianityThe germans adopted ChristianityIslam and christianity converted manyThe Hagia Sophia in ConstantinopleJustinian’s Code: The Code, The Digest, The Institutes, and the Novellae (New Laws)The Great Schism: Roman Catholic vs Eastern Orthodox feuding beliefs and rulesThe Vikings worshipped warlike GodsThe Crusades- holy wars; The first crusade was most successful, rest were littleGothic cathedralsPower struggles between kings and popes

6. 600 CE – 1450 CE - Deanna • Social • Feudalism/ Chivalrysocial classes: king--> church official/nobles--> knights--> peasantsthe manor was the lords estate, peasants worked on the manorschivalry: ideals of knightsknights must defend their masters, devote himself to a lord, and a chosen lady; loyal, brave, courteous. Most knights did not fit these qualitiesPower by land ownersThe Shifting Rights of women: roles became limited to home/conventimprovements in farming lead to increase in population Economic • Interaction • Turks adopting islambyzantines, Slavs, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols ttok part in wars in attempt to expand their territoriesthe vikings arrived from ScandinaviaGothic stylePolyphonic musicThe Bubonic Plague killed millions and weakened the manorial economy • Art/Architecture • Greek Fire- flammable liquid; Byzantines used this weapon on the Arab seige of Constantinoplethe creation of the Cyrillic AlphabetThe Vikings had excellent weapons and shipsGutenberg – Printing Press • Changes and Continuity • A major change was the introduction of Islam in 622. This was completely new to people because Christianity was the main religion. • A major continuity is the repetition of rise, prosperity, decline, and fall of empires; this time the Roman Empire (to the Turks).

7. 1450 – 1750 - Rea Early Modern Period- years of political, religious, intellectual, and socioeconomic transformationNations grew stronger, more stableOne major Christian denomination in Europe: Roman Catholicism (Eastern Orthodox popular only in Byzantium and Eastern Europe)Started in 1517 Martin Luther opposed indulgencesNinety-five Theses: launched general attack against church abuses and Catholic doctrineLutheranism (new church) 1520’sProtestant Reformation: new movementsJohn Calvin proposed a more extreme form of ProtestantismMany beliefs separated them from Catholics -did not venerate the saints -rituals and sacrifices were less important -priests allowed to marry -salvation by grace: nothing but God’s grace could bring a worshipper to heaven -encouraged to read the Bible for themselves -made education and literacy important Catholic Reformation mid-to-late 1500sCouncil of Trent 1545-1563 church wanted to eliminate corrupt practicesSupported creation of religious art and architecture Baroque movementReligious discipline: authority of the pope, gave new power to Holy Inquisition, approved of the Jesuits, produced missionaries to combat Protestantism1520s-1640s: religious wars; tried to force Protestants back to Catholic foldEuropean countries became nation-statesDuring Middle Ages monarchs forced to the feudal systemBy 1600s states were developing bureaucracies: collecting taxes, banks, general staffs (army), admiralties (navy), ministries, cabinetsStill traces of monarchs, aristocrats governments becoming rationalDuring 1500s rulers wanted to centralize political power; two types of monarchy: absolutism and parliamentarism Absolute monarchies: no legal limitation to monarchLouis XIV (1661-1715) created bureaucracy and national economy, built largest army and navy in Europe, involved France with too many wars damaged economy

8. 1450 – 1750 - Rea Fredrick the Great (1740-1786) Prussia; one of the most effective monarchs, victory over Austria, France, Russia during Seven Years War England and Dutch Republic parliamentary monarchies: ruler governed with lawmaking body appointed by aristocracy, electedAdvantages were obvious; strong economies, powerful navies, urbanized societies, intellectual and cultural outlooksThe Renaissance spreading in Europe until 1600s led to the baroque period, dominated painting and architecture, emphasized dynamic and colorful, birth of opera. During the mid-1500s, individuals such as Andreas Vesalius (human anatomy) and Nicolaus Copernicus (heliocentric theory: earth and other plants revolve around sun) began exploring scientific boundariesScientific RevolutionGalileo popularized Copernicus’ theories States of matter (liquid, gas, solid), light consisting of waves or particles, living creatures made up of cells, capillaries, vacuums, statisticsIsaac Newton (1642-1727) laws of motion, concepts of gravity, calculus1700s-Age of Enlightenment: human logic and rationality, world of reasonLocke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, HobbesAll believed government should be rationally organized and regulated but not all the same ideas about politics and societyColumbian Exchange- agricultural revolution 1700sNew foods from Americas; corn and potatoes; soil aeration, adoption of iron plows, rotation of crops population growth, environmental changes, increased demography Early modern period: new economic philosophies developed Mercantilism: strict state control over economic activityCapitalism: part of the Enlightenment; free trade, competition, supply and demandWomen became more active education, participation in economic role, more rights; control over marriage, divorce, childbirth, inheritance; yet still not equal to men Change and Continuity A major change for this time period was the introduction of the Protestant and Catholic Reformation: many changes were seen within the religion. Another change was the introduction of Absolute Monarchs who had no limit to their power. This can also be a continuity because it has been seen before, but not as widely.

9. 1750-1914 - Maheen • The Industrial Revolution (1700-1900)- Science & Technology – From the spinning jenny to the locomotive train, there was an explosion of inventions and technological advances.- Empire Building – The global power balance shifted after the Industrial Revolution. Industrialized nations dominated the rest of the world.- Economy – The Industrial Revolution transformed economic systems. In part, this was because nations dramatically changed the way they produced and distributed goods.

10. 1750-1914 - Maheen • The French Revolution and Napoleon (1789 – 1815)- Power & Authority – With absolute rulers dominating Europe, the enlightenment thinkers began questioning why so few held so much power. - Napoleon - French general who became emperor of the French (1769-1821)- The French Revolution - (1789–1799) was a period of radical social and political upheaval in French and European history. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years. French society underwent an epic transformation as feudal, aristocratic, and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from liberal political groups and the masses on the streets. Old ideas about hierarchy and tradition succumbed to new Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights.- The American Revolution inspired the French Revolution. - Economy – There was a weak economy in France because of the wide gap between the rich and poor.  Change and Continuity: A great change seen was the technological developments used in war. Continuity was evident with the revolutions and enlightenments that were taking place. • The Great War (1914 – 1918)- Science & Technology – Advances in weaponry from improvements to the machine gun and airplane, to the invention of the tank, led to mass devastation during World War I. - Economy – The war greatly affected many European economies. The warring governments were desperate for resources. They converted many industries to munitions factories. They also took greater control of the production of goods. In addition, they put thousands of unemployed people to work. - Power & Authority – The quest among European nations for greater power played a role in causing World War I. By the turn of the 20th century, the nations of Europe were driven by intense feelings of superiority. They competed with each other on many fronts. They also built large armies to display their might. 

11. 1914-Present - Kristin • Political • --Background causes of WWI: an arms race had emerged as each individual nation sought to create the world’s strongest army. - Late 1800s and early 1900s, in an attempt to maintain the balance of power, many nations in Europe entered alliances for protection. (Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy & the Triple Entente, among Britain, Russia, and France.) • --Immediate cause of WWI: June 28, 1914 – the assassination of archduke Francis Ferdinand. -> Germany pledges support to Austria-Hungary -> Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia -> Russia mobilizes forces against Austria-Hungary in support of Serbia -> Germany declares war on Russian and then on France -> Germany invades Belgium -> Britain declares war on Germany. • --Results of WWI: Some nations, (France & Great Britain) emerged victorious and retained imperial control. – The process of decolonization was underway – significant increase in nationalism throughout colonial world – Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires split -> the creation of new nations, Yugoslavia and Poland – Ottoman Empire broke up and were put under the mandate of the French and British - Allies met in Paris in 1919->their peace plan included the Treaty of Versailles between Allies and Germany->ensured that Germany would never again be a threat to the security if Europe – Other allied leaders, David Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau, sought to punish the losers, Germany. - League of Nations was created in hopes of avoiding future wars and maintaining peace. • --Mandate System: stated that colonies and territories needed assistance as they prepared for self-government and that more advanced nations would act as guides for the less experienced ones. • --Rise of Fascism: emerged in Italy and Germany during the interwar period->faced economic depression and were in need of strong leaders – extreme nationalism and state control over all aspects of life –Italy: Mussolini emphasized state over the individual and transformed nation into totalitarian state. – Germany: promoted b National Socialist German Workers’ Party, with elements of militarism and anti-Semitism – by early 1930s, the Nazi Party had control over German parliament, and by 1934, Hitler became leader of Germany – Nazis severely limited people’s civil liberties, outlawed all other political parties, and took control of police force. – Under Hitler, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were ignored; he built up a military and aggressively took control of foreign lands. • In the late 1930s, Europe felt compelled to respond to aggressive actions of Hitler. - 1938 Munich Conference – 1939, Hitler took over Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland – April 1946, the Allies marched into Germany, Hitler committed suicide • Origins of WWII: Axis Powers and Allied Powers – Italy attacked Ethiopia, violating the League of Nations – Germany violated Treaty of Versailles – Appeasement • 1939: Nazi-Soviet Pact – Germany violates the pact by invading the Soviet Union in June 1941 and quickly took control of the Soviet spheres of influence in the Baltic countries and eastern Europe • Germany invaded Poland unannounced on September 1, 1939 ->Blitzkrieg, “Lightning War” • United Nations: created at the end of WWII as a coalition dedicated to maintain world peace and security. • Origins of Cold War: division of postwar Germany into four occupation zoned set the stage for democracy vs. communism – NATO and Warsaw Pact • Creation of Iron Curtain: articulated in a 1946 speech by Winston Churchill, refers to the symbolic division of Europe following the end of WWII • Truman Doctrine created in direct response to crises in Greece and Turkey. • NATO: established in 1949, as a military alliance of democratic nations against Soviet Aggression • European Union: 1957; signed the Treaty of Rome-> established European community – treaties among member nations also created the Council of Ministers and European Parliament – Maestrict Treaty of 1993 established the European Union-> fifteen member nations who ceded some political power and adopted a common currency Iron Curtain Demise: November 1989 – Berlin Wall was opened and soon entirely torn down, symbolizing the end of the Cold War

12. 1914-Present - Kristin • Economic • - Background causes of WWI: the major industrialized nations of Europe were competing for control of foreign markets and access to materials and resources. • - World War I was the world’s first truly modern war: new weapons revolutionized warfare – machine guns – heavy artillery – trench warfare->stalemate – poison gas grenade (first used by Germans) – by 1916, the British used to tanks to advance against German trenches – aerial combat – planes->reconnaissance – submarine warfare (domain of Germans) • - Great Depression: in 1929, European countries struggled to rebuild damaged postwar economies. – Nations struggled to repay debts – surpluses in agriculture and industry led to overproduction and falling prices – October 1929-> stock market crash-> global depression ensued as banks and millions of people were forced into bankruptcy • - Germany experienced military and economic growth under Hitler’s leadership-> created jobs and increased standard of living. • - Mussolini’s promise of economic recovery and the addition of land to the Italian empire gained him popular support • - Nations to the west of the Iron Curtain developed and maintained market economies. • - Marshall Plan: a massive economic aid package, part of the containment policy, deigned to strengthen democracy and lessen the appeal of communism. • Religion • The Nuremberg Laws instituted anti-Semitic policies. • During WWII, Hitler sought to make his goal of “living space” for Germans a reality by cleansing the land he controlled over inferior peoples. – Policy was aimed at Jews, but millions of others were also killed - German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 saw the release of Ss Einsatzgruppen, which killed entire populations of Jews in newly acquired territories – Final Solution-> plan to kill all Jews in Europe – camps at Auschwitz, Belzec, and Treblinka used methods such as gassing, electrocution, flamethrowers, phenol injections, machine guns, and hand grenades - Holocaust saw the loss of 12 million people, more than half Jewish – Nuremberg Trials held after WWII to try Nazi war criminals for crime against humanity. • Social • Nationalism, along with militarism and imperialism, combined with the reality of entangling alliances, led to a war involving the entire European continent. • Total War: when all of a nation’s resources are dedicated to the war effort and both the civilian and military populations mobilize to defeat an enemy. • Technology of WWI – on the civilian front, Paris and other cities were bombed. • Results of WWI: cities throughout were destroyed and millions were dead, injured or homeless • Self Determination: the idea that a nation should have the right to determine its own future (influenced the creation of the Mandate System) • Hitler and Mussolini used fear and terror to combat opposition and both suspended people’s civil liberties.

13. 1914-Present - Kristin • Interaction • Background causes of WWI: The creation of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. • Results of WWI: the Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany-> Paris 1919 – The League of Nations • --Mandate System • Nazi-Soviet Pact • United Nations • Iron Curtain • NATO • The construction of the Berlin Wall became a visible symbol of the Iron Curtain and thus the Cold War. • European Union • Art/Architecture • The Age of Anxiety: period after WWI when doubt was cast upon previously existing ways of life – feelings of uncertainty and doubt reflected in science, art, architecture, and psychology – Novelists, such as Ernest Hemingway, wrote about the destruction of war – Pablo Picasso and other artists, experimenting with new art forms, moved away from realism and toward freer forms of expression – In the field of psychology, Sigmund Freud and others questioned traditional thinking on morality and values, and developed new approaches to explaining human behavior. • Hitler’s book, Mein Kamf, outlined his political views, including anti-Semitic beliefs, became popular among German Nazis. • Change and Continuity • Continuity in this time period was seen with the oppression of people of a certain religion (the Jews). They had laws for this (the Nuremberg Laws). • Change was seen with the technological developments in war.