Chapter 7: Learning

1. Chapter 7: Learning

2. Chapter Preview Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Factors That Affect Learning Application: Health and Wellness

3. Types of Learning • Learning • A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience • Significance of animal research • Behaviorism • Associative Learning / Conditioning • Observational Learning

4. Types of Learning

5. Classical Conditioning: Terminology Helps to explain involuntary behavior Neutral Stimulus (NS) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

6. Classical Conditioning: Procedure • Acquisition • UCS produces a UCR (reflex) • Neutral stimulus (NS) paired with a UCS • After pairings, NS produces a CR • Thus, the NS has become a CS • Contiguity – Time between CS and UCS • Contingency – Is CS regularly followed by the UCS?

7. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov • NS – Sound of Pavlov’s bell (prior to pairings with meat powder) • Unlearned / Reflexive • UCS – Meat powder • UCR – Dog salivates • Learned • CS – Sound of Pavlov’s bell • CR – Dog salivates

8. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov

9. Classical Conditioning • Generalization • CRs may appear after various NS that are similar to the CS • Advantages and disadvantages? • Discrimination • CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs • Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS • Advantages and disadvantages?

10. Classical Conditioning • Extinction • CR is weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS • Pavlov rang the bell but did not present food, and the dog stopped salivating • Spontaneous Recovery • CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning • When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated again

11. Classical Conditioning

12. Classical Conditioning: Applications • Phobias • Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert • White rat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS) • Counterconditioning • Associate CS with new, incompatible CR • CS paired with new UCS • Jones (1924): Peter and the Rabbit • Rabbit paired with food eliminated Peter’s fear

13. Classical Conditioning: Applications Fearful Emotional Reactions Pleasant Emotional Reactions Advertising Drug Habituation

14. Operant Conditioning Helps to explain voluntary behavior Consequences of behavior affect the future probability of that behavior Contiguity – Time between behavior and consequence Contingency – Is behavior regularly followed by the consequence?

15. Operant Conditioning • Thorndike’s Law of Effect • Consequence strengthens or weakens a S – R connection • B.F. Skinner • Learning mechanisms the same for all species • Behavior controlled by environmental forces • Shaping • Reward approximations of the desired behavior

16. Reinforcement • Reinforcement - Increase in Behavior • Positive Reinforcement • Behavior followed by rewarding consequence • Rewarding stimulus is “added” • Negative Reinforcement • Behavior followed by rewarding consequence • Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”

17. Reinforcement

18. Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous Reinforcement • Partial Reinforcement • Terminology • Fixed • Variable • Ratio • Interval

19. Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed Ratio (FR) • Reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors • Examples • Variable Ratio (VR) • Reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (i.e., an average) • Examples

20. Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed Interval (FI) • Reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed • Examples • Variable Interval (VI) • Reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed • Examples

21. Schedules of Reinforcement

22. Schedules of Reinforcement • Generalization • Stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response • Responding occurs to similar stimuli • Discrimination • Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced • Extinction and spontaneous recovery • Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops

23. Punishment • Punishment - Decrease in Behavior • Positive Punishment • Behavior followed by aversive consequence • Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added” • Negative Punishment • Behavior followed by aversive consequence • Rewarding stimulus is “removed”

24. Punishment

25. Comparing Operant Procedures

26. Critical Controversy: Punishment • Corporal Punishment • Used by 70-90% of parents in the U.S. • Correlational research studies • Problems Associated with Punishment • Why should parents avoid spanking? • Is physical punishment necessary?

27. Operant Conditioning • Timing of Consequences • Immediate versus delayed reinforcement • Immediate versus delayed punishment • Immediate reinforcement and delayed punishment • Premack Principle • High-probability activities can be used to reinforce low probability activities. • Examples

28. Intersection: Brain • How does the brain register reward? • The Brain’s Reward Pathway • Dopamine (DA) • Ventral tegmental area (VTA) • Nucleus accumbens (NAc) • Prefrontal cortex and limbic system • Drugs that block DA also block reward

29. Observational Learning • Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior • Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory • Four Processes • Attention • Retention • Motor reproduction • Reinforcement

30. Observational Learning

31. Cognitive Factors in Learning • Do cognitions matter? • Many believe that learning involves more than environment-behavior connections • Purposive Behavior • Much of behavior is goal directed • Goal setting in human behavior • Self-regulation and self-monitoring

32. Cognitive Factors in Learning Expectancy Learning and Information Value Cognitive Maps Latent Learning Insight Learning

33. Other Factors in Learning • Biological Constraints • Instinctive drift • Preparedness • Cultural Constraints • Psychological Constraints

34. Application: Health and Wellness • Classical Conditioning • Immune system functioning • Operant Conditioning • Predictability • Control • Improvement • Outlets for frustration

35. Application: Health and Wellness • Behavior Modification Programs • Using operant conditioning principles to change human behavior • Five Steps • Define the problem • Commit to change • Collect data about yourself • Design a self-control program • Make the program last - maintenance

36. Chapter Summary Explain what learning is. Describe classical conditioning. Discuss operant conditioning. Understand observational learning. Discuss the role of cognition in learning. Identify biological, cultural, and psychological factors in learning. Describe how principles of learning apply to health and wellness.

37. Chapter Summary • Learning - Relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience • Classical Conditioning • Association between two stimuli • Terminology: CS, CR, UCS, UCR • Generalization and discrimination • Extinction and spontaneous recovery • Phobias and counterconditioning

38. Chapter Summary • Operant Conditioning • Stimulus  Response  Consequence • Positive and negative reinforcement • Positive and negative punishment • Schedules of reinforcement • Observational Learning • Attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement

39. Chapter Summary • Cognitive Factors in Learning • Purposive behavior • Insight learning • Other Factors in Learning • Biological, cultural, psychological constraints • Application: Health and Wellness • Variables involved in the stress response • Behavior modification programs