Lesson Overview

1. Lesson Overview 10.1 Cell Growth, Division, and Reproduction

2. Information “Overload” • Living cells store critical information in DNA. • As a cell grows, that information is used to build the molecules needed for cell growth. • As size increases, the demands on that information grow as well. If a cell were to grow without limit, an “information crisis” would occur.

3. Information “Overload” • Compare a cell to a growing town. The town library has a limited number of books. As the town grows, these limited number of books are in greater demand, which limits access. • A growing cell makes greater demands on its genetic “library.” If the cell gets too big, the DNA would not be able to serve the needs of the growing cell.

4. Exchanging Materials • Food, oxygen, and water enter a cell through the cell membrane. Waste products leave in the same way. • The rate at which this exchange takes place depends on the surface area of a cell. • The rate at which food and oxygen are used up and waste products are produced depends on the cell’s volume. • The ratio of surface area to volume is key to understanding why cells must divide as they grow.

5. Ratio of Surface Area to Volume • Imagine a cell shaped like a cube. As the length of the sides of a cube increases, its volume increases faster than its surface area, decreasing the ratio of surface area to volume. • If a cell gets too large, the surface area of the cell is not large enough to get enough oxygen and nutrients in and waste out.

6. Traffic Problems • To use the town analogy again, as the town grows, more and more traffic clogs the main street. It becomes difficult to get information across town and goods in and out. • Similarly, a cell that continues to grow would experience “traffic” problems. If the cell got too large, it would be more difficult to get oxygen and nutrients in and waste out.

7. Division of the Cell • Before a cell grows too large, it divides into two new “daughter” cells in a process called cell division. • Before cell division, the cell copies all of its DNA. • It then divides into two “daughter” cells. Each daughter cell receives a complete set of DNA. • Cell division reduces cell volume. It also results in an increased ratio of surface area to volume, for each daughter cell.

8. Asexual Reproduction • In multicellular organisms, cell division leads to growth. It also enables an organism to repair and maintain its body. • In single-celled organisms, cell division is a form of reproduction.

9. Asexual Reproduction • Asexual reproduction is reproduction that involves a single parent producing an offspring. The offspring produced are, in most cases, genetically identical to the single cell that produced them. • Asexual reproduction is a simple, efficient, and effective way for an organism to produce a large number of offspring. • Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic single-celled organisms and many multicellular organisms can reproduce asexually.

10. Examples of Asexual Reproduction • Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. • Starfish can reproduce by fragmentation. • Hydras reproduce by budding.

11. Sexual Reproduction • In sexual reproduction, offspring are produced by the fusion of two sex cells – one from each of two parents. These fuse into a single cell before the offspring can grow. • The offspring produced inherit some genetic information from both parents. • Most animals and plants, and many single-celled organisms, reproduce sexually.

12. Comparing Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

13. Lesson Overview 10.2 The Process of Cell Division

14. Chromosomes • The genetic information that is passed on from one generation of cells to the next is carried by chromosomes. • Every cell must copy its genetic information before cell division begins. • Each daughter cell gets its own copy of that genetic information. • Cells of every organism have a specific number of chromosomes.

15. Prokaryotic Chromosomes • Prokaryotic cells lack nuclei. Instead, their DNA molecules are found in the cytoplasm. • Most prokaryotes contain a single, circular DNA molecule, or chromosome, that contains most of the cell’s genetic information.

16. The Prokaryotic Cell Cycle • The prokaryotic cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division. • Most prokaryotic cells begin to replicate, or copy, their DNA once they have grown to a certain size. • When DNA replication is complete, the cells divide through a process known as binary fission.

17. The Prokaryotic Cell Cycle • Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction during which two genetically identical cells are produced. • For example, bacteria reproduce by binary fission.

18. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle • The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four phases: G1, S, G2, and M. • Interphase is the time between cell divisions. It is a period of growth that consists of the G1, S, and G2 phases. The M phase is the period of cell division.

19. G1 Phase: Cell Growth • In the G1 phase, cells increase in size and synthesize new proteins and organelles.

20. S Phase: DNA Replication • In the S (or synthesis) phase, new DNA is synthesized when the chromosomes are replicated.

21. G2 Phase: Preparing for Cell Division • In the G2 phase, many of the organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced.

22. M Phase: Cell Division • In eukaryotes, cell division occurs in two stages: mitosis and cytokinesis. • Mitosis is the division of the cell nucleus. • Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.

23. Important Cell Structures Involved in Mitosis • Chromatid – each strand of a duplicated chromosome • Centromere – the area where each pair of chromatids is joined • Centrioles – tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of animal cells that help organize the spindle • Spindle – a fanlike microtubule structure that helps separate the chromatids

24. Prophase • During prophase, the first phase of mitosis, the duplicated chromosome condenses and becomes visible. • The centrioles move to opposite sides of nucleus and help organize the spindle. • The spindle forms and DNA strands attach at a point called their centromere. • The nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope breaks down.

25. Metaphase • During metaphase, the second phase of mitosis, the centromeres of the duplicated chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. • The spindle fibers connect the centromere of each chromosome to the two poles of the spindle.

26. Anaphase • During anaphase, the third phase of mitosis, the centromeres are pulled apart and the chromatids separate to become individual chromosomes. • The chromosomes separate into two groups near the poles of the spindle.

27. Telophase • During telophase, the fourth and final phase of mitosis, the chromosomes spread out into a tangle of chromatin. • A nuclear envelope re-forms around each cluster of chromosomes. • The spindle breaks apart, and a nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter nucleus.

28. Cytokinesis • Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm. • The process of cytokinesis is different in animal and plant cells.

29. Cytokinesis in Animal Cells • The cell membrane is drawn in until the cytoplasm is pinched into two equal parts. • Each part contains its own nucleus and organelles.

30. Cytokinesis in Plant Cells • In plants, the cell membrane is not flexible enough to draw inward because of the rigid cell wall. • Instead, a cell plate forms between the divided nuclei that develops into cell membranes. • A cell wall then forms in between the two new membranes.

31. Lesson Overview 10.3 Regulating the Cell Cycle

32. Controls on Cell Division • How is the cell cycle regulated? • The cell cycle is controlled by regulatory proteins both inside and outside the cell.

33. The controls on cell growth and division can be turned on and off. • For example, when an injury such as a broken bone occurs, cells are stimulated to divide rapidly and start the healing process. The rate of cell division slows when the healing process nears completion.

34. The Discovery of Cyclins • Cyclins are a family of proteins that regulate the timing of the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells. • This graph shows how cyclin levels change throughout the cell cycle in fertilized clam eggs.

35. Regulatory Proteins • Internal regulators are proteins that respond to events inside a cell. They allow the cell cycle to proceed only once certain processes have happened inside the cell. • External regulators are proteins that respond to events outside the cell. They direct cells to speed up or slow down the cell cycle. • Growth factors are external regulators that stimulate the growth and division of cells. They are important during embryonic development and wound healing.

36. Apoptosis • Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death. • Apoptosis plays a role in development by shaping the structure of tissues and organs in plants and animals. For example, the foot of a mouse is shaped the way it is partly because the toes undergo apoptosis during tissue development.

37. Cancer: Uncontrolled Cell Growth • How do cancer cells differ from other cells? • Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth of most cells. As a result, the cells divide uncontrollably.

38. Cancer is a disorder in which body cells lose the ability to control cell growth. • Cancer cells divide uncontrollably to form a mass of cells called a tumor.

39. A benign tumor is noncancerous. It does not spread to surrounding healthy tissue. A malignant tumor is cancerous. It invades and destroys surrounding healthy tissue and can spread to other parts of the body. The spread of cancer cells is called metastasis. Cancer cells absorb nutrients needed by other cells, block nerve connections, and prevent organs from functioning.

40. What Causes Cancer? • Cancers are caused by defects in genes that regulate cell growth and division. • Some sources of gene defects are smoking tobacco, radiation exposure, defective genes, and viral infection. • A damaged or defective p53 gene is common in cancer cells. It causes cells to lose the information needed to respond to growth signals.

41. Treatments for Cancer • Some localized tumors can be removed by surgery. • Many tumors can be treated with targeted radiation. • Chemotherapy is the use of compounds that kill or slow the growth of cancer cells.

42. Lesson Overview 10.4 Cell Differentiation

43. THINK ABOUT IT • The human body contains hundreds of different cell types, and every one of them develops from the single cell that starts the process. How do the cells get to be so different from each other?

44. From One Cell to Many • How do cells become specialized for different functions? • During the development of an organism, cells differentiate into many types of cells.

45. All organisms start life as just one cell. • Most multicellular organisms pass through an early stage of development called an embryo, which gradually develops into an adult organism.

46. During development, an organism’s cells become more differentiated and specialized for particular functions. • For example, a plant has specialized cells in its roots, stems, and leaves.

47. Defining Differentiation • The process by which cells become specialized is known as differentiation. • During development, cells differentiate into many different types and become specialized to perform certain tasks. • Differentiated cells carry out the jobs that multicellular organisms need to stay alive.

48. Mapping Differentiation • In some organisms, a cell’s role is determined at a specific point in development. • In the worm C. elegans, daughter cells from each cell division follow a specific path toward a role as a particular kind of cell.

49. Differentiation in Mammals • Cell differentiation in mammals is controlled by a number of interacting factors in the embryo. • Adult cells generally reach a point at which their differentiation is complete and they can no longer become other types of cells.

50. Stem Cells and Development • What are stem cells? • The unspecialized cells from which differentiated cells develop are known as stem cells.