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Chapter 0

Chapter 0. General Introduction. Materials in an Automotive Engine. Figure I.1 Section of an automotive engine - the Duratec V-6 - showing various components and the materials used in making them. Source: Courtesy of Ford Motor Company. Illustration by David Kimball. Components in Products.

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Chapter 0

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  1. Chapter 0 General Introduction

  2. Materials in an Automotive Engine Figure I.1 Section of an automotive engine - the Duratec V-6 - showing various components and the materials used in making them. Source: Courtesy of Ford Motor Company. Illustration by David Kimball.

  3. Components in Products • Some products are a single components (nail, bolt, fork, coat hanger, etc.) • Some products are assemblies of many components (ball point pens, automobiles, washing machines, etc.) • All components are manufactured. • Manufacturing means, literally, “Made by Hand”.

  4. History of Manufacturing (until 1700)

  5. History of Manufacturing (1700-1960)

  6. History of Manufacturing (1960-2000s)

  7. Materials Selection for Paper Clips Questions for consideration: • What material properties are required? • What manufacturing attributes are required? • Would the material and processing strategy change if the desired quantity was 10,000 vs. 1 million per day? Figure I.2 Examples of the wide variety of materials and geometries for paper clips.

  8. Manufacture of Light Bulbs Figure I.3b Manufacturing steps in making an incandescent light bulb. Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company. Figure I.3a Components of a common incandescent light bulb. Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company.

  9. Product Design Process Figure I.4 (a) Chart showing the various steps involved in design and manufacturing a product. Depending on the complexity of the product and the type of materials used, the time span between the original concept and the marketing of the product may range from a few months to many years. (b) Chart showing general product flow in concurrent engineering, from market analysis to selling the product. Source: After S. Pugh, Total Design. Addison-Wesley, 1991.

  10. CAD, CAE and CAM Product design often involves preparing analytical and physical models of the product as an aid to studying factors such as forces, stresses, deflections, and optimal part shape. Today, analytical models are highly simplified using: • CAD (computer-aided modeling and design): the use of computers in interactive engineering drawing and storage of designs. Programs complete the layout, geometric transformations, projections, rotations, magnifications, and interval (cross-section) views of a part and its relationship with other part. • CAE (computer-aided engineering), the performance of structures subjected to static or dynamic loads and to varying temperatures can now be simulated, analyzed, and tested efficiently, accurately, and rapidly. The information developed can be stored, retrieved, displayed, printed, and transferred any where in the organization. Designs can be optimized, and modifications can be made, directly and easily, at any time. • CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) involves all phases of manufacturing, by utilizing and processing further the large amounts of information on materials and processes gathered and stored in the organization’s database.

  11. Design for Manufacture, Assembly, Disassembly, and Service - (DFM, DFA, DFS): • DFM is a comprehensive approach to production of goods, and it integrates the design process with materials, mfg methods, process planning, assembly, testing, and quality assurance such that the product can be manufactured economically and efficiently • Establishing quantitative relationships is essential in order to optimize the design for ease of mfg and assembly at minimum product cost. Expert systems (ES), which have optimization capabilities and thus can expedite the iteration process in design optimization, are powerful tools in such analysis. • Assembly is an important phase of the overall mfg operation and requires consideration of the ease, speed, and cost of putting parts together (see Fig. 1.5 – redesign of parts to facilitate assembly).

  12. Redesign of Parts Figure I.5 Redesign of parts to facilitate assembly. Source: Reprinted from G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst, Product Design for Assembly, 1989. Courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.

  13. Design for Manufacture, Assembly, Disassembly, and Service - (DFM, DFA, DFS): • Also, products must be designed so that disassembly is possible, in order to enable the product to be taken apart easily for maintenance, servicing, or recycling of its components. This contributes significantly to product cost, so DFA (and design for disassembly) are important aspects of manufacturing. • Design for service, the goal of which is that individual parts or sub-assemblies in a product be easy to reach and service. • The trend now is to combine DFM and DFA into the more comprehensive DFMA, which recognizes the inherent interrelationship among the manufacturing of components and their assembly into a final product.

  14. 1.5 Selecting Materials The following are the general types of materials used in mfg (either individually or as composites): • Ferrous metals: carbon, alloy, stainless, and tool and die steels. • Nonferrous metals: aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, low-melting alloys, beryllium, zirconium, etc. • Plastics (polymers): thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers. • Ceramics, glasses, glass ceramics, graphite, diamond, and diamond-like materials. • Composite (engineered) materials: reinforced plastics, metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites. • Nanomaterials: shape-memory alloys, amorphous alloys, semiconductor, and superconductors.

  15. 1.5.1 Properties of materials When selecting materials for products: • First consider their mechanical properties: strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue, and creep. • Next consider the physical properties of materials: density, specific heat, thermal expansion and conductivity, melting point, and electrical magnetic properties. • Combination of mechanical and physical properties: strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness-to-weight ratio. Such properties are important for aerospace, automotive, and sport applications. Aluminum, titanium, reinforced plastics are good examples. • Chemical properties also play a significant role, both in hostile and in normal environments: oxidation, corrosion, toxicity, and flammability. • Manufacturing properties of materials determine whether they can be cast, formed, machined, welded, & heat-treated with relative ease (see table below). Methods used to process materials to desired shapes can affect product’s performance, service life, & cost.

  16. Manufacturing Characteristics of Alloys

  17. 1.5.2Cost and Availability • The economic aspects of material selection are as important as technological considerations of properties & characteristics of materials. • A product design can be modified to take advantage of standard dimensions of raw materials and thus avoid extra mfg costs. • Reliability of supply, as well as demand, affects cost. • Different costs are involved in processing materials by different methods. Some methods require expensive machinery, others require extensive labor, and still others require personnel with special skills, a high level of education, or specialized training.

  18. 1.5.3 Appearance, Service Life, and Recycling • Color, feel, and surface texture are characteristics that we consider when making a decision about purchasing a product. • Time- & service- dependent phenomena such as wear, fatigue, creep, and dimensional stability are important and if not controlled can lead to malfunction or failure of the product. Friction & wear, corrosion, and other phenomena can shorten product’s life or cause it to fail prematurely. • To keep clean and healthy environment, recycling (or proper disposal) of component materials at the end of product’s useful service life and proper treatment and disposal of toxic wastes have become major considerations.

  19. 1.6 Selecting Manufacturing Processes Manufacturing Processes: Casting Figure I.7a Schematic illustration of various casting processes

  20. Manufacturing Processes: Forming and Shaping Extrusion Figure I.7b Schematic illustration of various bulk deformation processes

  21. Manufacturing Processes: Forming and Shaping Figure I.7c Schematic illustration of various sheet metal forming processes

  22. Manufacturing Processes: Forming and Shaping Figure I.7d Schematic illustration of various polymer processing methods

  23. Manufacturing Processes: Machining Figure 1.7e Schematic illustrations of various machining and finishing processes.

  24. Manufacturing Processes: Joining Figure I.7f Schematic illustration of various joining processes

  25. Manufacturing Processes: • Nanofabrication: it is the most advanced technology and is capable of producing parts with dimensions at the nano level (one billionth); processes such as etching techniques, electron-beams, and laser beams. Present applications are in the fabrication of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and extending to nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) • Selecting a mfg process (s) depends not only on the shape to be produced but also material properties. Brittle and hard materials, for example, cannot be shaped or formed easily, where-as they can be cast, machined, or ground. • The mfg process usually alters the properties of materials. Metals that are formed at room temperature become stronger, harder, and less ductile than they were before processing. • Each mfg process has its own advantages and limitations, as well as production rates and product cost.

  26. 1.6.2 Dimensional accuracy and surface finish (Net Shape Mfg) • The dimensions and shape complexity of part have a major bearing on the mfg process selected to produce it: • Flat parts with thin cross-sections cannot be cast properly. • Complex parts cannot be formed easily and economically, whereas they may be cast or else fabricated from individual pieces. • Tolerances and surface finish obtained in hot-working operations cannot be as good as those obtained in cold-working operations because of dimensional changes, warping, and oxidation during processing of materials at elevated temperatures. • Some casting processes produce a better surface finish than others because of the different types of mold materials used. • Additional processes (subsequent to original one) may be necessary to get the designed dimensions and tolerance, and desired surface finish (forged part may need to be machined or grinded). • These additional processes can significantly raise the cost of a product. Consequently, the concept of net-shape or near-net-shape manufacturing has become very important, in which by the first operation the part is made as close to the final desired dimensions, tolerances, surface finish , and specifications as possible.

  27. 1.6.3 Operational and manufacturing costs • The design & cost of tooling, lead time required to begin production, & the effect of work piece material on tool life and die life are major consideration. • For parts made from expensive materials, the lower the scrap rate, the more economical the production process will be; i.e.; minimize waste. • Availability of machines and equipment within the mfg facility, and the experience of operating personnel are also important cost factors. If these capabilities are not available, some parts have to be manufactured by outside companies (outsourcing). • No. of parts required and the production rate are important in determining the processes to be used and the economics of production. Small-batch production involves annual quantities about 10 to 100. Batch production usually involves lot sizes 100 to 5000, and mass production in lots sizes often over 100,000 using special-purpose machinery. • The particular mfg process and operation of machinery has significant environmental & safety implications.

  28. Consequences of improper selection of materials & processes A component or a product is generally considered to have failed when: • It stops functioning (broken shaft, gear, bolt, or turbine blade). • It does not function properly or perform within required specification limits (worn bearings, gears, tools, and dies). • It becomes unreliable or unsafe for further use (crack in a shaft, poor connection in a printed-circuit board, or delamination of a reinforced plastic component). • Product failures may result from: design deficiencies, improper material selection, material defect, manufacturing-induced defects, improper component assembly, and improper product use.

  29. 1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) The use of computers has been extended to computer-integrated mfg (CIM) in which software and hardware are integrated from product concept through product distribution in the marketplace. CIM is effective because of its capability for making possible: • Responsiveness to rapid changes in market demand and product modification. • Better use of materials, machinery, personnel, & reduction in inventory. • Better control of production & management of the total mfg operation. • The manufacture of high-quality products at low cost.

  30. 1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) The following is an outline of the major applications of computers in manufacturing (Ch. 38 & 39): • Computer numerical control (CNC): a method of controlling the movements of machine components by direct insertion of coded instructions in the form of numerical data. • Adaptive Control (AC): parameters in a mfg process are adjusted automatically to optimize production rate and product quality and to minimize cost. Parameters (forces, temp., dimension, surface finish) are monitored constantly. If they move outside the acceptable range, the system adjusts the process variables until the parameters again fall within the specified range.

  31. 1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) • Industrial Robots: replacing humans in operations that are repetitive, boring, and dangerous, thus reducing possibility of human error, decreasing variability in product quality, and decreasing variability in product quality, and improving productivity (sensors). Figure below shows automated spot welding of automobile bodies in a mass production line.

  32. Automated welding of automobiles Figure I.13 Automated spot welding of automobile bodies in a mass production line. Source: Courtesy of Ford Motor Company.

  33. 1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) • Automated handling of materials: handling of materials and products in various stages of completion (work in progress). Move from storage to a machine, from machine to machine, and at points of inspection, inventory, and shipment. • Automated and robotic assembly systems: these systems mainly have replaced costly assembly by human operators, although humans still have to perform some of these operations. Products are now designed or redesigned so that they can be assembled more easily and faster by machines. • Computer-aided process planning (CAPP): this system is capable of improving productivity in plant by optimizing process plans, reducing planning costs, and improving the consistency of product quality & reliability. Functions such as estimating of cost and the monitoring work standards (time required to perform a certain operation) are also be incorporated into the system. • Group technology (GT): parts can be grouped and produced by classifying them into families, according to similarities in design and similarities in the mfg processes used. In this way, part designs and process plans can be standardized and families of similar parts can be produced efficiently and economically.

  34. 1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) • Just-in-time production (JIT): supplies of raw materials, parts, and components are delivered to the manufacturer JIT to be used, parts and components are produced JIT to be made into subassemblies and assemblies, and products are finished JIT to be delivered to the consumer. In this way, inventory-carrying costs are low, part defects are detected right away, productivity is increased, and high quality products are made at low cost. • Cellular manufacturing (CM): this system utilizes workstations (mfg cells) that usually contain several production machines controlled by a central robot, each machine performing a different operation on the part. • Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS): integrate mfg cells into a large unit, all interfaced with a central computer. Although very costly, FMS is capable of efficiently producing parts in small runs and of changing mfg sequences on different parts quickly; this flexibility enables them to meet rapid changes in market demand for various types of products.

  35. 1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) • Expert Systems (ES): complex computer programs with the capability to perform various tasks and solve difficult real-life problems much as human experts would. • Artificial intelligence (AI): use of machines & computers to replace human intelligence. Computer-controlled systems are now capable of learning from experience & of making decisions that optimize operations and minimize costs. Artificial neural networks (ANN), which are designed to simulate the thought processes of human brain, have the capability of modeling & simulating production facilities, monitoring & controlling mfg processes, diagnosing problems in machine performance, conducting financial planning, and managing a company’s mfg strategy.

  36. Application of CAD/CAM to make sunglasses mold Figure I.14 Machining a mold cavity for making sunglasses. (a) Computer model of the sunglass as designed and viewed on the monitor. (b) Machine the die cavity using a computer numerical-control milling machine (c) Final product. Source: Courtesy of Mastercam/CNC Software, Inc.

  37. 1.8 Lean Production (LP) and Agile Manufacturing (AM) • LP involves a thorough assessment of each of the activities of a company in order minimize waste at all levels. This includes: • Efficiency & effectiveness of all its various operations. • Efficiency of machinery and equipment. • Number of personal involved in each particular operation. • The possible dispensing of some of its operations & managers. • This approach continues with a comprehensive analysis of the costs of each activity, including those due to productive and non-productive labor. • This strategy requires a fundamental change in corporate culture, as well as understanding of the importance of cooperation & teamwork between management and the work force. • The results of this approach do not necessarily require cutting back to resources, rather it aims at continually improving the efficiency & profitability of the company, by removing all waste from the operations and by dealing with problems right away.

  38. 1.8 Lean Production (LP) and Agile Manufacturing (AM) • Agile Manufacturing (AM) is a term indicatingthe implementation of the principles of LP on a broad scale: • The principle behind AM is ensuring agility (hence flexibility) in the manufacturing enterprise, so that it can respond quickly to changes in product demand and in customer needs. • This flexibility is to be achieved through people, equipment, computer hardware and software, and sophisticated communications Systems. • These approaches require that a manufacturer benchmark its operations; this method entails understanding the competitive position of other manufacturers with respect to its own and then setting realistic goals for the future.

  39. Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management • Product quality directly influences the marketability and consumer satisfaction. • Traditionally, parts are inspected (after have been manufactured) to ensure that they meet specifications and standards such as dimensions, surface finish, and mechanical & physical properties. • Practice now is to make quality built into product (through all stages) rather inspecting after a product is made. The objective should be to control processes, not products. • Defective products can be very costly to the manufacturer, creating difficulties in assembly operations, requiring repairing in the field, and resulting in customer dissatisfaction. • Product integrity is a term that can be used to define the degree to which a product • is suitable for its intended purpose. • responds to a real market need • functions reliably during its life, and • can be maintained with relative ease.

  40. Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management • Total quality management (TQM) and quality assurance (QA) must be the responsibility of everyone involved in the designing and manufacturing a product. The major goal is to prevent defects from occurring, rather than to detect and reject defective products after they are made, (at 6 sigmas defects are reduced to only 3.4 defects per million). • Important developments in quality assurance include the implementation of experimental design: factors involved in a mfg process and their interactions are studied simultaneously. • Global manufacturing and competitiveness let to the establishment of quality control methods. This resulted in the ISO 9000 standards series on Quality management and Quality assurance. A company registered for this product means that the company conforms to consistent practices as specified by its own quality system.

  41. Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management • Product liability: a product’s malfunction or failure may cause bodily injury (or death) and financial loss to a person or an organization. Laws are different from country to country. All those involved with product design, manufacture, and marketing must fully recognize the consequences of product failure (even if misused). Examples of products that may involve liability: • A grinding wheel that shatters and blinds a worker. • A cable that saps, allowing a platform to drop. • Brakes that does not work because of failure of a component • Electric and pneumatic tools without proper warnings. • Human-factors engineering and ergonomics deals with human versus machine interactions and thus are important aspects of the design and manufacture of safe products. Examples include: • An uncomfortable or unstable workbench or chair. • A mechanism that is difficult to operate manually, causing back injury; and • A poorly designed keyboard that causes pain to the user’s hand and arms after repetitive use.

  42. Home work • Differentiate between the following mechanical properties of materials (strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue, creep and stiffness) • List the common 7 – wastes, include examples for each form.

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