Factors Affecting Performance

1. Factors Affecting Performance HSC Core 2 Focus Question: How can psychology affect performance?

2. It is commonly accepted that mental preparation for athletic pursuits is essential for best performance, and that athletes generally perform better with knowledge and application of psychological principles and strategies. The primary goals of sports psychology are to describe, explain and predict the attitudes, feelings and behaviour of sports participants, including athletes, coaches and even spectators. The use of psychological strategies to improve sports performance has increased significantly over the past few decades. Coaches have realised that, particularly at elite level psychology plays a key role in determining the level of performance. The ability of the mind to generate thought patterns, influence emotions, stimulate or diminish arousal and create images of a desired action is now better understood and has changed the way that many athletes approach their events. The major aspects of psychology that affect performance are motivation and anxiety. Athletes need to be able to prepare for major competitions, reduce tension and stress that may have cause a decline in performance, and maintain high-level performances over a long period of time. motivation (For Activity)

3. Motivation Motivation is what drives behaviour and is very important for athlete's to reach an optimal level of performance. Motivation significantly impacts on an individual's approach to training sessions, games and/or events. Motivation can be positive or negative, and intrinsic or extrinsic. Motivation is often referred to as the 'drive' towards a goal. Motivation greatly influences the amount of interest and effort an athlete gives to a task. Motivation is a personal thing and what motivates one person may not motivate another person at that point in time. Motivation is a very important factor in improving and maintaining an individual's athletic performance. Individuals who lack motivation may not attend regular training sessions, may not train with full intensity, and may not perform to their highest standard during games or competition. The type of reinforcement an athlete receives may also affect their motivation. Reinforcement refers to the reward that encourages the athlete to continue to apply efforts. It can be positive or negative and intrinsic or extrinsic.

4. Positive and negative Although both forms of motivation are used in sport, the use of positive motivation tends to be more effective than negative motivation in improving an individual's performance. It results in higher levels of improvement in performance, and tends to last longer than any gains made from the use of negative motivation. Reinforcement most often comes in the form of rewards (positive reinforcement). The rewards reinforce the act and let the athlete know that further progress will be rewarded in the same way. Many athletes, particularly elite athletes are continually bombarded with motivation, often of a positive nature. Sometimes however athletes can become de-motivated and this may be due to negative influences. motivation (For Activity)

5. Positive motivation Positive motivation occurs when an athlete performs because they have received rewards for similar actions in the past and they realise that continuing to perform as required results in additional rewards. Positive motivation relies on continual self-reinforcement and/or reinforcement by others such as the coach, family, friends, spectator and the media. There are many ways in which motivation can be given or maintained such as: • providing incentives/rewards e.g. money, gifts • developing personal progress charts e.g. how many runs/goals scored, tackles made • reinforcement (support/praise) from others e.g. family, vvvfriends, media • recognising achievements e.g. MVP, newsletters/paper vvvarticles, noticeboards • handling mistakes constructively e.g. positive constructive vvvcriticism from a coach • developing challenges for the athlete e.g. fitness vvvchallenges, skill challenges

6. Negative motivation Negative motivation is characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations, such as being dropped to a lower grade team or put on the bench for a previous poor performance. Inspiring an athlete to perform well because they expect to be punished if they fail may work on occasion, but has serious shortfalls. Consider yourself in the example provided above where the coach has told you that if you do not perform well during this game you may be benched or dropped to a lower grade. How may this affect your performance in the game? Players who are motivated negatively may display performance inhibiting behaviours that may surface in high pressure situations as a result of fear of failure, such as: • indecisiveness during game play • lack of creativity in game play • fear of risk taking - opt for the safe play • susceptibility to 'choking'. The general long term effects can be the destruction of confidence, initiative and belief in oneself - the reverse of what motivation is supposed to achieve. Some athletes may be responsive to negative motivation on particular occasions, but positive motivation is better on an ongoing basis.

7. While the responsibility for motivation needs to be shared between the athlete and their coaches/parents/peers, sustained motivation relies much more on intrinsic factors than on extrinsic factors. Intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation which comes from within the individual is said to be intrinsic. This may include personal satisfaction or enjoyment that stems from the performance. This is believed to be more effective than an athlete relying upon extrinsic forms of motivation which come from sources outside a person, such as money and trophies. motivation (For Activity)

8. Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in the task or the activity and they enjoy learning and performing the movements. Intrinsic motivation originates with inner feelings and may serve to drive a need to succeed, accomplish or perform at the best level. It is self-sustaining and self-reinforcing because effort and personal accomplishment becomes its own reward. For these athletes, establishing competence is sufficiently challenging and rewarding in itself. Many individuals complete long distance running events such as the City to Surf. There are many competitors and only a few divisions, yet thousands of people take part in events like these for the satisfaction of completing the race despite knowing they have little chance of winning.

9. Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation occurs when the individual’s internal state is modified by sources originating from outside the person such as parents and coaches and includes praise, material rewards and financial remuneration. Extrinsic motivation focuses on the product, or what can be gained. While rewards or fears may change how hard we work, they do not alter attitudes that underlie our behaviours. A focus on material rewards such as prizes and monetary incentives or a fear of retribution if one’s performance is not up to standard can turn the purpose of the activity into an end rather than a means.

10. POSITIVE Motivation towards goal EXTRINSIC I want the reward INTRINSIC I want to do it NEGATIVE Motivation away from something

11. Anxiety and arousal Anxiety is a state of being uneasy, apprehensive, or worried about what may happen during a performance. Anxiety usually involves an increase in the level of emotion; however, it is often accompanied by feelings such as worry, concern, negative thoughts and feelings. When discussing anxiety it is important to distinguish between trait and state anxiety, identify sources of stress, and recognise the link between optimum arousal levels and performance. Anxiety is the emotional response to a perceived threat. Arousal can be defined as the emotional, mental or physiological activation required to produce a response. Anxiety and arousal can play a significant role in performance. Many athletes need to learn strategies to manage their anxiety and arousal levels. Anxiety produces a heightened level of emotion that causes physical (e.g. lack of sleep) and psychological discomfort (e.g. fear of failure). Anxiety & arousal (For Activity)

12. Anxiety & Arousal Trait and state anxiety Anxiety can be defined as an unpleasant state of mental uneasiness or concern that causes physical and psychological discomfort. Extreme anxiety disrupts and unsettles behaviour by lowering the individual's concentration and affecting their muscular control. Any sporting game or contest can give rise to anxiety when one's perceived ability does not measure up to the demands of the task. Trait anxiety is an athlete's general predisposition to perceive a situation as threatening or non-threatening. This tends to be a personality trait. State anxiety refers to the emotional response of an athlete to a particular situation, e.g. the presence of match point in tennis, the pressure of performing in an elite gymnastics final for the first time. Trait anxiety Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of an individual, that is, a trait related to personality. Trait anxiety varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage the stress. What may cause anxiety and stress in one person may not generate any emotion in another. People with high levels of trait anxiety are often quite easily stressed and anxious.

13. State anxiety  State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to a fear or danger of a particular situation. State anxiety can contribute to a degree of physical and mental paralysis, preventing performance of a task or where performance is severely affected, such as forgetting movements during a dance or gymnastic routine, to breaking in sprint or swim starts or missing relatively easy shots at goal i.e. pressure situations.  For some athletes sports anxiety can be a valuable motivator, e.g. contact sports such as rugby, whereas other sports require a very low level of anxiety for successful performances, e.g. archery, pistol shooting. Athletes can learn to manage anxiety using techniques such as relaxation, hypnotherapy, cognitive behaviour therapy and positive thinking. For state anxiety, therapies focus on the specific situations causing stress to the athlete whereas Trait anxiety requires a broader approach.

14. Sources of stress Stress is a human response to a threat or perceived threat. As it depends on perceptions it can vary greatly from one person to another e.g. one athlete may be totally unphased by a sudden death play-off in competition whereas another may see this as a situation producing high levels of stress. Stress can come from many sources both internal and external and athletes can learn strategies to alleviate stress. Stress is a normal part of everyday life but left uncontrolled it contributes to anxiety and reduced performance. Athletes constantly undergo stressful situations before, during and after competition. When athletes compete they might experience too much stress (hyperstress), too little stress (hypostress), good stress (eustress) or bad stress (distress). A major game, such as a world cup soccer qualifier may produce significant stress for some athletes. Equally a game of less importance such as a pre-season trial game or exhibition game may result in players too relaxed to perform. Stress can come from many sources, some of which athletes have little control over. Internal or personal pressures include the desire to win or fulfil goals, self-esteem and self-confidence, fear or failure to non-controlled aspects such as injury and illness. External stressors can include competition pressures such as the opponents; social pressures such as spectators, coaches and expectations of others; and physical pressures such as pressure to perform under demands of competition and reaction to opponents. There are many techniques that can be used to cope with stress before, during and after events, which will be discussed in the section on strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety. Sources of stress (For Activity)

15. Sources of Stress

16. Arousal is the physical and mental activation or intensity exhibited at a specific point in time. A highly aroused person is mentally alert, has an elevated heart rate and may be sweating, while someone with low arousal is ‘half asleep’. The signs and symptoms of arousal include: profuse sweating negative self-talk butterflies in stomach stomach ache dry mouth headache feeling sick dazed look constant need to go to the toilet inability to concentrate increased heart rate negative images. Arousal is important for successful performance, but different individuals and sports require different levels of arousal for optimal performance. Compare a pistol shooter or golfer to a rugby union forward or a boxer—some athletes need to be pumped up before they compete, while others prefer to be quiet and calm. Optimal arousal (For Activity)

17. Optimum arousal Optimal arousal refers to the level of excitement in activities that enables an athlete to perform at their best. Optimal performance can only occur when the performer has achieved a balance between over-arousal and under-arousal. Athletes can learn to attain optimal level of arousal by developing practices and techniques which will allow them to manage their arousal levels. Optimal arousal does not mean maximal arousal. Both over-arousal and under-arousal can contribute to poor performance. An individual will perform a skill most successfully when the level of arousal is optimal for that particular task. A poor performance may be due to low level of arousal, perhaps resulting from distraction, disinterest or a depressed level of motivation. The other end of the spectrum is a state of over-arousal, whereby the athlete is unable to perform the required movement with precision because he/she is excessively tense and unable to concentrate. Levels of arousal vary considerably between individuals and they respond to different stimuli to raise or lower their levels of arousal. Arousal has drive properties, meaning that the manipulation of factors that affect anxiety can increase or decrease arousal. Generally, athletes who have a high disposition towards anxiety require less arousal than those who have a low disposition towards anxiety.

18. Optimum Arousal – Inverted U Hypothesis The inverted U explains the relationship between arousal levels and performance. If an athlete is under or over aroused performance will be negatively affected.

19. Under Arousal Where arousal is low, performance suffers as the athlete may become bored, disinterested, lacking concentration and motivation. Over Arousal Where arousal is too high, performance also suffers from all the symptoms of stress/anxiety. The athlete would feel anxious and apprehensive, due to concern about the outcome of performance. Over aroused athletes may experience increased heart rate and breathing rates, increased muscular tension and sweat production, nausea, and find that competition is threatening and unpleasant. All of these physiological changes can decrease performance.

20. Zone Optimal Arousal If the athlete is functioning in the zone of optimal arousal, they have found a balance between level of motivation and ability to control muscular tension. This athlete can focus on relevant cues, limit distractions and would be feeling ‘I am ready for this competition’. The optimum level of arousal for different athletes and different sports will vary.

21. Managing Anxiety Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety To ensure that anxiety does not have a negative impact on performance, an athlete needs to learn to manage their personal anxiety levels. A range of psychological strategies can be used to manage anxiety such as concentration/attention skills, mental rehearsal/visualisation, relaxation and goal setting. Concentration/attention skills (focusing) Concentration or attention skills refer to the ability of the athlete to focus their thoughts and energy into the task at hand. It allows the athlete to focus on relevant cues and ignore distractions, for example, the crowd.

22. By improving the ability to focus on relevant cues (coach - 'keep your eyes in the ball') and to ignore irrelevant ones (spectator - 'you catch like a baby') the individual will be able to improve their performance. Attention involves taking control of the mind and, with clarity, focusing on what is important. The type of concentration required varies with the type of activity. It could be: • intense concentration as is required in activities such as gymnastics, diving and batting in cricket • intervals of high concentration interspersed with periods of intense concentration predominate in most team games such as oz tag, netball and softball • sustained concentration as might be required in triathlons, marathon running and high level tennis matches, such as the recent world-breaking longest Wimbledon match where the score went to 70-68 in the fifth set tie breaker. Over 11 hours of tennis.

23. It relies on the power of imagery - that is, seeing clearly in the mind what is required of the body in the movement. It involves recalling and then reliving the execution of a skill or a performance. In this process there is no physical movement. A key feature of mental rehearsal is that it can replicate the feelings of anxiety the individual will experience during performance while allowing an individual to visualise success. Mental rehearsal also Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery Mental rehearsal, visualisation and imagery involve practising the performance or skill, or the environment in which it is performed in the athlete's mind. This allows athletes to develop a visual image of the performance in a non-threatening environment. This visual image can help the performer focus on the movements required to produce an optimal performance, increase concentration and confidence. Mental rehearsal, sometimes called visualisation or mental imagery, has been shown to enhance not only competition performance, but also the acquisition and building of motor skills. It involves the mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the mind's familiarity with the desired motion. Managing anxiety allows the brain to work out problems and propose alternative solutions and decisions. It works by improving the neural connections between the brain and the muscles to create the movement. (For Activity)

24. Relaxation Relaxation techniques are techniques that, with practice, reduce arousal levels and limit the impact of over-arousal. Relaxation helps the athlete lower their stress level and calm themselves before a performance. Techniques that can be used to achieve this include progressive muscular relaxation, meditation, centred breathing, and hypnosis. Relaxation techniques are often used by sports performers to calm themselves which decreases anxiety and controls arousal. Relaxation can be useful before, during or after an event. As with mental rehearsal, visualisation and imagery, it must be practised so that it becomes a natural response and it is important that each athlete finds the relaxation technique that suits them personally. There are a number of relaxation techniques, including progressive muscle relaxation , autogenic training , meditation , biofeedback , breathing exercises and hypnosis . Each procedure differs from the other, but aims to produce calmer, more relaxed performers. Relaxation techniques usually have one or more of the following characteristics: procedures for tensing and then relaxing muscles a focus on breathing a focus on heaviness and warmth mental imagery. Managing anxiety (For Activity)

25. Goal-setting Setting goals allows an athlete's progress to be planned and monitored over a period of time. Goal setting also increases motivation and commitment levels providing the athlete with a clear direction. Goals need to be realistic and achievable to be effective. Goals may relate to areas such as the overall performance, specific skills involved, fitness or behaviours. Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards. They can relate to either performance or behaviour. The establishment of goals is important to improve both individual and team preparation and if collectively owned - by individuals, team, coach, and parents - will be more likely to obtain greater returns. By empowering athletes with the responsibility to set their own goals, they are more likely to seriously attempt to fulfil them. Goals provide focus and motivation, give direction, and help people to realise their aspirations and produce better results. Not only can goals redirect an athlete who is unable to see the end result of training, but they can provide the essential formula for success. Goals may be short or long term, and behaviour or performance oriented. Short-term goals play an important role as they serve as checkmarks by which other goals can be measured. Using the example of a long distance runner, a short-term goal may be to complete three endurance sessions for the first month of training. A long-term goal may be to run a 14km fun-run such as the City to Surf in Sydney. A behavioural goal may be to get up early and train before work/school. A performance goal may be to finish the City to Surf in less than 90 minutes.