Introduction to Soil Mechanics Geotechnical Engineering-II

1. ground Introduction to Soil Mechanics Geotechnical Engineering-II Dr. Attaullah Shah

2. Soil Formation • Soil derives from Latin word “ Solum” having same meanings as our modern world. • From Geologist point of view, “ The superficial unconsolidated mantle of disintegrated and decomposed rock material”-The entire mantle or rock decay. • Soil is a complex of inorganic matters that may or may not contain organic decomposed organic residues and other substances, which blanket the earth’s crust, which is formed by the process of weathering ( Disintegration and decomposition) of rock and mineral. • The weathering agents include physical, mechanical or chemical agents.

3. The factors of weathering in the process of soil formation may be atmospheric such as pressure, temperature, wind and water erosion and transportation by the water erosion and transportation by water and glaciers, plant and animal life. • Soil is a mixture of Water, Air and Solids. The solids are mixture of mineral matters with particle sizes differing in sizes, shapes and structure and varying in chemical compositions. • The top soil which supports vegetation is called “Top soil” and the undisturbed strata lying immediately below the natural top soil is termed as “ sub soil”.

4. Types of Soils: • Six main types: • Gravels. • Sands • Silts • Clay • Fine grained soils and pets. • They are further classified into two types: • Cohesive soils: Clay, shale and silts. • Non cohesive or Cohesion-less soils: Sand and Gravels, which possesses no plasticity and tend to lack cohesion specially when in dry state.

5. Problems to be studied before execution of the projects • How deep the soil exploration must be made? • What is the safe and allowed bearing capacity? • What is the load of structures to be applied at the soil? • What is the intensity and stress distribution in a soil induced by various kinds of loading? • How thick should be thickness of layer of good soil over a poor one in order to prevent the foundation from punching. • Does soil possesses properties ( friction and cohesion) which will assure satisfactory stability for foundation. • How much counter weight must be placed as remedial measures against the lateral motion of soil

6. The settlement of soils under applied loads and its rate and nature. • The depth of ground water and its variation at various depths. • Depth of frost penetration and subsequent depth of foundation and effect of freeze and thaw on pavement and structures. • The suitability of soil for the construction of structures like dams, roads and buildings. • The issues relating to water logging and salinity in soils etc.

7. Natural Soil Deposits • Soils are the results of weathering, mechanical disintegration, and chemical decomposition of the parent material, mainly rocks • The products of weathering may have the same composition as the parent material, or they may be new minerals that have resulted from the action of water, carbon dioxide, and organic acids with minerals comprising the parent material. • The products of weathering that remain in place are termed residual soils. • In most cases gravity and erosion by ice, wind, and water move these soils to form new deposits, termed transported soils. • In humid and tropical climates, weathering may significantly affect the character of the soil to great depths, while in temperate climates it produces a soil profile that primarily affects the character of surface soils. • The character of natural soil deposits usually is complex.

8. Identification of Soils • Soils are identified by visual examination and by means of their index properties (grain-size distribution, Atterberg limits, water content, specific gravity, and void ratio). • A description based on visual examination should include color, odor when present, size and shape of grains, gradation, and density and consistency characteristics. • Coarse grained soils: soils have more than 50 percent by weight retained on the No. 200 sieve and are described primarily on the basis of grain size and density • Fine-grained soils have more than 50 percent by weight finer than the No. 200 sieve. Descriptions of these soils should state the color, texture, stratification, and odor, and whether the soils are soft, firm, or stiff, intact or fissured. • The visual examination should be accompanied by estimated or laboratory determined index properties.

9. Physical properties of soils • Color: Depends on • Minerals of soil. • Organic contents • Amount of oxides • Color is natural state is noted. • Soil Structure: depends on • Size and shapes of soil particles. • Terzaghi grouped soil in three groups • Granular or single grained soil: Silt and Clay • Flocculent Structure: Clay • Dispersed Structure: Transportation process: Man • fills. • Particle Shapes: • Angular • Sub Angualr • Rounded • Elongated • Flaky

10. Soil Index Properties: • Grain-size distribution. The grain-size distribution of soils is determined by means of sieves and/or a hydrometer analysis, and the results are expressed in the form of a cumulative semi-log plot of percentage finer versus grain diameter..

11. Atterberg limits. The Atterberg limits indicate the range of water content over which a cohesive soil behaves plastically. The upper limit of this range is known as the liquid limit (LL); the lower, as the plastic limit (PL). The LL is the water content at which a soil will just begin to flow when slightly jarred in a prescribed manner. The PL is the water content at which the soil will just begin to crumble when rolled into threads 1/8 inch in diameter. • Shrinkage limit: Water content at which the soil changes from solid state to semi-solid state. • Plastic limit: The moisture content at which the soil changes from semi solid state to plastic state. • Liquid limit: At which a soil changes from plastic stage to liquid state. • Density. The mass density of a soil material is its weight per unit volume. The dry density of a soil is defined as the weight of solids contained in the unit volume of the soil and is usually expressed in pounds per cubic foot. • Specific gravity. The specific gravity of the solid constituents of a soil is the ratio of the unit weight of the solid constituents to the unit weight of water. For routine analyses, the specific gravity of sands and clayey soils may be taken as 2. 65 and 2. 70, respectively. • Consistency. The consistency of an undisturbed cohesive soil may be expressed quantitatively by the unconfined compressive strength qu.

12. Soil Properties: • Water Content: • The amount of water present in the voids of soil in its natural state and denoted by ‘m’ and expressed as %age. • m = (weight of water/weight of dry soil) x 100 • Degree of saturation: • The conditions when the voids are partially filled with water is expressed as degree of saturation or relative moisture content. • S=Vw/Vv = Ww/Wv=m/msat. • Ww: weight of water actually present in the voids. • Wv: Weight of water than can fill all voids. • m: actual water content • Msat: Moisture content, when all voids are filled with water. • 0<S<1 • Air void Ratio: The ratio of volume of air presnet in the voids to the total volume of soil mass: • Av=A=Va/V= (Vv-Vw)/ (Vv+Vs) • A= (Vv-SVv)/Vs(Vv/Vs+1)= Vv(1-S)/Vv(1=e) = e(1-S)/1+e = n(1-s)

13. Weight Volume relationships of soils

14. Soil Classification

15. Purpose • Main soil types are; Clay, Silt, Sand, Gravels, Boulders etc. • Above types seldom exist separately in nature • Natural soil deposits comprise mixture of above types in varying proportions • Soil classification means to arrange soil in groups and label them based on their properties and behaviour. • Soil Classification Systems have been developed by different organizations

16. Basis for Classification • Classification is based on the following physical properties • Grain Size Distribution (GSD) • Liquid limit (LL) • Plasticity Index (PI) • Classification gives some idea about the general behaviour of soil • However to predict true behaviour additional information based on geotechnical properties are yet required

17. Communicate between engineers Classification system (Language) Estimate engineering properties Achieve engineering purposes Simple indices GSD, LL, PI Use the accumulated experience • Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms of simple indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a general guidance about engineering properties of the soils through the accumulated experience.

18. Soil Classification Systems (SCS) • Classification systems developed by different organizations 1.Unified soil classification system. 2. AASHTO (American Association of state Highway and Transportation Officials) soil classification system. 3. FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) soil classification system. 4. Textural soil classification system. 5. USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture) soil classification system.

19. 2. Classification Systems • Two commonly used systems: • Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). • American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System Most widely used to classify soil for use in foundation & dam engineering. Most widely and exclusively used for highways and airfields

20. 3. Unified Soil Classification System(USCS) Origin of USCS: This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande (1948) for the purpose of airfield construction during World War II. Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to dams, foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). • Four major divisions: • Coarse-grained • Fine-grained • Organic soils • Peat

21. Liquid and plastic limit tests. • Particle size analysis test. • Tests required for classification of soil are; • Broad Classification includes the following two types; • Coarse-grained soil • Fine-grained soil • The soil is classified in to 15 groups. • Each group is designated a symbol consisting of two capital letters • The first letter is based on main soil type • The second letter is based on gradation and plasticity

22. Symbols for main soil types Coarse-grained soil is subdivided into two subgroups based on gradation, W-- for well-graded soil P -- for poorly-graded soil Fine-grained soil is subdivided in two subgroups based on their plasticity characteristics L-- for low plasticity soil (liquid limit < 50) H-- for high plasticity soil (liquid limit > 50)

23. ClassificationGroup Symbols

24. Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are known as borderline soils and designated by dual symbols e.g., GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-CG, SC-SM, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC, CL-ML. Total number of groups in USC system, therefore are twenty six (26), The Unified Soil Classification System is based on the following: 1. Textural characteristics of coarse-grained soils with such small amount of fines, that fines do not affect the behaviour. 2. Plasticity characteristics of fine-grained soils where the fines affect the engineering behaviour. Textural characteristics are evaluated by particle-size analysis. Plasticity characteristics are evaluated by the plasticity chart.

25. To classify a soil, following information based on particle size analysis and Atterberg limits should be available. • %age of gravel, that is, the fraction passing 3-in. (76.2mm) sieve and retained on the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve. • %age of sand, that is, the fraction passing No.4 sieve (4.75mm) and retained on the No.200 (0.074mm) sieve. • %age of silt and clay, that is, the fraction finer than the No.200 (0.075mm) sieve. • Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc), which actually depend on the shape of particle-size-distribution curve. • Liquid limit and plasticity index of the fraction of soil passing No.40 sieve, plotted on the plasticity chart

26. 3.1 Definition of Grain Size No specific grain size- use Atterberg limits Silt and Clay Gravel Sand Cobbles Boulders Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine No.200 0.075 mm No.4 4.75 mm 300 mm 75 mm No.10 2.0 mm 19 mm No.40 0.425 mm

27. 50 % Coarse-grained soils: Gravel Sand Fine-grained soils: Silt Clay NO.200 0.075 mm NO. 4 4.75 mm • Grain size distribution • Cu • Cc • PL, LL • Plasticity chart 3.2 General Guidance 50% LL>50 LL <50 Required tests: Sieve analysis Atterberg limit

28. Soil symbols: G: Gravel S: Sand M: Silt C: Clay O: Organic Pt: Peat Liquid limit symbols: H: High LL (LL>50) L: Low LL (LL<50) Gradation symbols: W: Well-graded P: Poorly-graded 3.3 Symbols Example: SW, Well-graded Sand SC, Clayey Sand SM, Silty Sand, MH, Highly Plastic Silt

29. L H PI LL (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) 3.4 Plasticity Chart • The A-line generally separates the more claylike materials from silty materials, and the organics from the inorganics. • The U-line indicates the upper bound for general soils. • Note: If the measured limits of soils are on the left of U-line, they should be rechecked.

30. 3.5 Procedures for Classification Coarse-grained material Grain size distribution Fine-grained material LL, PI Highly (Santamarina et al., 2001)

31. 3.7 Organic Soils • Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT) • A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous texture, a dark-brown to black color, and an organic odor should be designated as a highly organic soil and shall be classified as peat, PT. • Organic clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH): • “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 % of its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above statement is true, then the first symbol is O. • The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI and LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.

32. 3.8 Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols) • For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should be used. • Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines. • About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the coarse-grained media by orders of magnitude. • The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or poorly graded. The second symbol describe the contained fines. For example: SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt. • Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI between 4 and 7 and LL between about 12 and 25). • It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike materials. • CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayey sand. • Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions. • possible dual symbols GM-ML

33. 3.8 Borderline Cases (Summary) (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

34. Group Symbols for Gravelly Soil - No.200, means passing No.200 sieve

35. Table: Group Symbols for Sandy Soil - No.200, means passing No.200 sieve.

36. Table: Group Symbols for Silty and Clayey Soil

37. Range of material % for coarse grained soil (ASTM-1986)

38. Range of material %-age for coarse grained soil (ASTM-1986)

39. Range of plasticity & material % for low plastic inorganic silty & clayey soil (ASTM-1986)

40. Range of plasticity & material %-age for highly plastic silty & clayey soil (ASTM-1986)

41. Range of plasticity & material %-age for organic soil (ASTM-1986)

42. Group symbols & their characteristics related to Roads & Airfields

43. Group symbols & their characteristics related to Roads & Airfields

44. DESCRIPTION OF USC-GROUPS COARSE GRAINED SOIL 1. GW and SW groups: • Well-graded gravelly and sandy soils with little or no fines (≤ 5%). • Fines must not change the strength & free-draining characteristics • In areas prone to frost action, they should not contain  3% of grains smaller than 0.02 mm. 2.GP and SP groups: • Poorly graded gravels and sands with little or no fines. • Poorly or Gap-graded materials are non-uniform mixtures of very • coarse material and very fine sands with intermediate sizes lacking. 3.GM and SM groups: • Silty gravel & silty sand with fines (12%) of low or no plasticity. • These lie below the “A” line on the plasticity chart. • Both well and poorly-graded materials are included in these groups. • GMd and SMu groups: • Suffices “d” and “u” mean desirable and undesirable base materials • This subdivision applies to roads and airfields only • Subdivision is based on the liquid limit and plasticity index • Suffix “d” is used when LL is 25 or less and the PI is 5 or less; • Suffix “u” is used otherwise.

45. 4. GC and SC groups: • Gravelly or sandy soils with fines ( 12 %) that are more clay-like. • The fines range in plasticity from low to high. • The LL and PI of these groups plot above “A” line on plasticity chart. • Both, well and poorly-graded soils are included in these groups. FINE-GRAINED SOIL 1. ML and MH groups: • Sandy silts, clayey silts, or inorganic silts with relatively low plasticity. • Loess-type soils, rock flours, micaceous and diatomaceous soils are also included. • Some types of kaolinite and illite clays also fall under these groups. • Suffices L & M means low and high • Micaceous and diatomaceous soils generally fall within the MH group but may extend into the ML group when their LL is less than 50. 2.CL and CH groups: • The CL and CH groups include clays with low and high liquid limits • They are primarily inorganic clays. • The medium and high plasticity clays are classified as CH and include fat clays, gumbo clays, bentonite, and some volcanic clays. • The low plasticity clays are classified as CL and usually include lean clays, sandy clays, or silty clays.

46. 3.OL and OH groups: • These groups are characterized by the presence of organic matter. • Organic silts and clays are included in these two groups, and they have a plasticity range corresponding to the ML, and MH groups. Highly Organic Soils • These soils are designated by group symbol (Pt). • They are usually very compressible and have undesirable engineering characteristics. • These includes peat, humus, and swamp soils with a high organic texture. • Common components of these soils are particles of leaves, grass, branches, or other fibrous vegetable matter.

47. Table: Engineering use chart

48. Table: Engineering use chart

49. Table: Engineering use chart

50. Table: Engineering use chart