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6 STRUCTURES FOR DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

6 STRUCTURES FOR DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS. 6.0 Introduction 6.1 Block Diagram Representation of Linear Constant-Coefficient Difference Equations 6.2 Signal Flow Graph Representation of Linear Constant-Coefficient Difference Equations 6.3 Basic Structures for IIR Systems 6.4 Transposed Forms

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6 STRUCTURES FOR DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

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  1. 6 STRUCTURES FOR DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS • 6.0 Introduction • 6.1 Block Diagram Representation of Linear Constant-Coefficient Difference Equations • 6.2 Signal Flow Graph Representation of Linear Constant-Coefficient Difference Equations • 6.3 Basic Structures for IIR Systems • 6.4 Transposed Forms • 6.5 Basic Network Structures for FIR Systems

  2. 6.0 Introduction • Systems described by linear constant-coefficient difference equations can be represented by structures consisting of an interconnection of the basic operations of addition, multiplication by a constant, and delay, the exact implementation of which is dictated by the technology to be used.

  3. As an illustration of the computation associated with a difference equation, consider the system described by the system function • The impulse response of this system is and the first-order difference equation that is satisfied by the input and output sequences is • Rewrite it in the form • Provides the basic for an algorithm for recursive computation of the output at any time a in terms of the previous output , the current input sample , and the previous input sample

  4. 6.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF LINEAR CONSTANT-COEFFICIENT DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS • The basic elements required for the implementation of a linear time-invariant discrete-time systems are adders, multipliers, and memory for storing delayed sequence values. The interconnection of these basic elements is conveniently depicted by block diagrams composed of the basic pictorial symbols shown in Figure6.1.

  5. and Figure6.1 (a) depicts delaying a sequence by one sample Figure6.1(b) depicts multiplication of a sequence by a constant, Figure6.1(c) represents the addition of two sequence.

  6. Example6.1 Block Diagram Representation of a Difference Equation • Consider the second-order difference equation • The corresponding system function is • The block diagram representation of the system realization based on Eq.(6.5) is shown in Figure6.2.

  7. Example 6.1 can be generalized to higher order difference • equations of the form • With the corresponding system function

  8. Rewriting Eq.(6.7) as a recurrence formula for in terms of a linear combination of past values of the output sequence and current and past values of the input sequence leads to the relation • The block diagram of Figure6.3 is an explicit pictorial representation of Eq.(6.9). More precisely, it represents the pair of difference equations (6.9)

  9. Figure6.3

  10. The block diagram of Figure6.3 can be viewed as a cascade of two systems, the first representing the computation of from and the second representing the computation of from . Since each of the systems is a linear time-invariant system, the order in which the two system are cascaded can be reversed, as shown in Figure6.4, without affecting the overall system function.

  11. Figure6.4 Rearrangement of block diagram of Figure6.3. we assure for convenience that N=M. if N not equal M, some of the coefficients will be zero

  12. In terms of the system function in Eq.(6.8), Figure6.3 can • be viewed as an implementation of through the decomposition • or, equivalently, through the pair of equations • Figure6.4, on the other hand, represents as • or, equivalently, through the equations

  13. In the time domain, Figure6.4 and, equivalently, Eqs.(6.14a) and(6.14b) can be represented by the pair of difference equations

  14. Specifically, the minimum number of delays required is, in general, max (N,M). An implementation with minimum number of delay elements is commonly referred to as a canonic form implementation. the noncanonic block diagram in Figure6.3 is referred to as the direct form I implementation of the general nth-order system. Figure6.5 is often referred to as the direct form II or canonic direct form implementation.

  15. Figure6.5 Combination of delays in Figure6.4

  16. Example6.2 Direct Form I and Direct Form II Implementation of an LTI System • Consider the LTI system with system function • Figure 6.6 Direct form I implementation of Eq.(6.16)

  17. Figure 6.7 Direct form II implementation of Eq.(6.16)

  18. 6.2 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH REPREDENTATION OF LINEAR CONSTANT-COEFFICIENT DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS • A signal flow graph is a network of directed branches that connect at nodes. Associated with each node is a variable or node value. The value associated with node k might be denoted , or, . • Branch (j , k) denotes a branch originating at node j and terminating at node k, with the direction from j to k being indicated by an arrowhead on the branch. • Figure6.8 Example of a signal flow graph showing source and sink nodes.

  19. e • Source nodes are nodes that have no entering branches, they are used to represent the injection of external inputs or signal sources into a graph. Sink nodes are nodes that have only entering branches. Sink nodes are used to extract outputs from a graph. The linear equations represented by the Figure6.9 are as follows: • Figure6.9 Example of a signal flow graph showing source and sink nodes.

  20. Addition, multiplication by a constant, and delay are the basic • operations required to implement a linear constant-coefficient difference equation. Since these are all linear operations, it is possible to use signal flow graph notation to depict algorithms for implementing linear time-invariant discrete-time systems. • Figure6.10(a) is the direct form II realization of the system whose system function is given by Eq.(6.1). A signal flow graph corresponding to this system is shown in Figure6.10(b).

  21. Delay branch 4 Figure6.10 (a) Block diagram representation of a first-order digital filter. (b) Structure of the signal flow graph corresponding to the block diagram in (a).

  22. To simplify the notation, we normally indicate a delay branch by showing its branch gain as . The graph of Figure6.10(b) is shown in Figure6.11 with this convention. The equations represented by Figure6.11 are as follows:

  23. In the case of the flow graph of Figure6.11, we can eliminate some of the variables rather easily to obtain the pair of equations Figure6.11 Signal flow graph of Figure6.10(b) with the delay branch indicated by

  24. Example6.3 Determination of the System Function from a Flow Graph • To illustrate the use of the z-transform in determining the system function from a flow graph, consider Figure6.12. The five equations are

  25. These are the equations that would be used to implement the system in the form described by the flow graph. Equations (6.20a)-(6.20e) can be represented by the z-transform equations

  26. We can eliminate and from this set of equations by substituting Eq.(6.21a) into Eq.(6.21b) and (6.21c) into Eq.(6.21d), obtaining • Equations (6.22a)and (6.22b) can be solved for and , yielding

  27. and substituting Eqs.(6.23a)and (6.23b) into Eq.(6.22c) leads to • Therefore, the system function of the flow graph of Figure6.12 is • From which it follows that the impulse response of the system is

  28. and the direct form I flow graph is as shown in Figure6.13. Figure6.12 Flow graph not in standard direct form. Figure 6.13 Direct form I equivalent ofFigure6.12

  29. 6.3 BASIC STRUCTURES FOR IIR SYSTEM • In this section, we develop several of the most commonly used forms for implementing a linear time-invariant IIR systems and obtain their flow graph representations.

  30. 6.3.1 Direct forms • In section 6.1, we obtained block diagram representations of the direct form I (Figure6.3) and direct form II, or canonic direct form (Figure6.5), structures for a linear time-invariant system whose input and output satisfy a difference equation of the form • With the corresponding rational system function • In Figure6.14, the direct form I structure of Figure6.3 is shown using signal flow graph conventions, and Figure6.15 shows the signal flow graph representation of the direct form II structure of Figure6.5

  31. Figure6.14 Signal flow graph of direct form I structure for an Nth-order system • Figure6.15 Signal flow graph of direct form II structure for an Nth-order system

  32. Example 6.4 Illustration of Direct Form I and Direct Form II Structures • Consider the system function • we can draw these structures by inspection with reference to Figure6.14 and 6.15. The direct form I and direct form II structures for this example are shown in Figure 6.16 and 6.17, respectively. • Figure 6.16 Direct form I structure for Example6.4. • Figure6.17 Direct form II structure for Example6.4

  33. 6.3.2 Cascade Form • The direct form structures were obtained directly from the system function , written as a ratio of polynomials in the variable as in Eq.(6.27). If we factor the numerator and denominator polynomials, we can express in the form • (6.29) • where and . The first-order factors represent real zeros at and real poles at , and the second-order factors represent complex conjugate pairs of zeros at and complex conjugate pairs of poles at and . • Equation(6.29) suggests a class of structures consisting of a cascade of first-and second-order systems.

  34. A modular structure that is advantageous for many types of implementations is obtained by combing pairs of real factors and complex conjugate pairs into second-order factors so Eq.(6.29) can be expressed as • where is the largest integer contained in .

  35. A cascade structure for a six-order system using three direct form II second-order sections is shown in Figure6.18. the difference equations represented by a general cascade of direct form II second-order sections are for the form

  36. b b b b b b y ( n ) x ( n ) 0 0 0 0 j j j j 0 0 j j －1 z －1 －1 z z a a a b b b 1 1 1 j j j 1 1 1 j j j －1 －1 －1 z z z a a a b b b 2 j 2 j 2 2 j j 2 2 j j • Figure 6.18 Cascade structure for a six-order system • with a direct form II realization of each second-order subsystem

  37. Example 6.5lllustration of Cascade Structures • Let us again consider the system function of Eq.(6.28). Use first-order systems by expressing as a product of first-order factors, as in • Since all of the poles and zeros are real, a cascade structure with first-order sections has real coefficients. If the poles and/or zeros were complex, only a second-order section would have real coefficients. Figure6.19 shows two equivalent cascade structures, each of which has the system function in Eq.(6.32)

  38. Figure6.19 Cascade structures for Example6.5. (a) Direct form I subsections. (b) Direct form II subsections

  39. 6.3.3 Parallel Form • As an alternative to factoring the numerator and denominator polynomials of , we can express a rational system function as given by Eq.(6.27) or (6.29) as a partial fraction expansion in the form • (6.34) • Where if then ; otherwise , the first summation in Eq.(6.34) is not included. If the coefficients and are real in Eq.(6.27), then the quantities and are all real. Alternatively, we may group the real poles in pairs, so that can be expressed as

  40. where, as in the cascade form, is the largest integer contained in and if is negative, the first sum is not present. • A typical example for is shown in Figure6.20. the general difference equations for the parallel form with second-order direct form II sections are • If , then the first summation in Eq.(6.36c) is not include.

  41. Figure6.20 Parallel-form structure for sixth-order system (M=N=6) with the real and complex poles grouped in pairs.

  42. Example6.6lllustration of Parallel-Form Structures • Consider again the system function used in Examples6.4 and 6.5. for the parallel form, we must express in the form of either Eq.(6.34) or Eq.(6.35). If we use second-order sections, • The parallel-form realization for this example with a second-order section is shown in Figure6.21. • Since all the poles are real, we can obtain an alternative parallel form realization by expanding as • The resulting parallel form with first-order sections is shown in Figure6.22.

  43. Figure6.21 Parallel-form structure for Example6.6 using a second-order system • Figure6.22 Parallel-form structure for Example6.6 using first-order systems

  44. 注意以下三点： • (1) 为什么二阶节是最基本的?因为二阶节是实系数，而一阶节一般为复系数。 • (2) 统一用二阶节表示，保持了结构上的一致性，有利于时分多路复用。 • (3) 级联结构与并联结构的基本二阶节是不同的。

  45. 级联结构的特点： • (1) 每个二阶节系数单独控制一对零点和一对极点，有利于控制频率响应。 • (2) 分子分母中二阶因子配合成基本二阶节的方式，以及各二阶 节的排列次序不同，其级联结构不同。它们表示同一个H(z)，但有限精度运算时带来误差不同。

  46. 试画出其级联型网络结构。 解 将H(z)分子分母进行因式分解，得到 • 例4.3.3 设系统函数H(z)如下式： 图4.3.4 例4.3.3图

  47. 并 联 结 构 的 特 点： • (1) 能精确调整每对极点，但全体零点随任一并联二阶节系数变化而变化，因此不适用于要求精确传输零点的场合。 • (2) 各节误差相互无影响，累加即可，故比级联型的误差一般来说稍小一些。

  48. 将每一部分用直接型结构实现，其并联型网络结 构如图4.3.5所示。 • 例4.3.4 画出例题4.3.2中的H(z)的并联型结构。 • 解 将例4.3.2中H(z)展成部分分式形式：

  49. 图4.3.5 例4.3.4图

  50. 6.4 TRANSPONSED FORMS • FLOW GRAPH REVERSAL or TRANSPOSITION: • Transposition of a flow graph is accomplished by reversing the directions of all branches in the network while keeping the branch transmittances as they were and reversing the roles of the input and output so that source nodes become sink nodes and vice versa.

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