GRASP - Graduate Research Advanced Skills Program

1. RESEARCH WRITING SERIES 5 Writing Analytically GRASP - Graduate Research Advanced Skills Program Along with critique and argument, understanding the processes and effective communication of analysis are crucial to successful research writing.

2. 5 Writing Analytically • AIMS OF TODAY’S CLASS • By the end of the workshop, participants will • understand how analysis differs from critique and argument • have considered how to use analytical writing to discover and develop ideas • have been introduced to a five-step process for analysing a set of data • have reflected on opportunities and challenges involved in the interpretation of data • understand that all effective analysis must include a process of summary • have practiced paraphrase as a form of analysis • have practiced written analysis of a short written text • have been introduced to some specific tools for analysis (e.g. 10 on 1; paraphrase X 3)

3. 5 Writing Analytically • WRITING ANALYTICALLY • Why link good analysis with effective research writing? • “…learning to write well means learning to use writing tothink well”. • “Writing should be seen as a way of generating andshaping thinking”. • Writing is also a “sustained act of reflection”. (Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, p.3) • This workshop focuses on how to THINK and WRITE about analysis.

4. 5 Writing Analytically WRITING ANALYTICALLY Why link good analysis with effective research writing? Analysis “finds questions where there seemed not to be any…” “makes connections that might not have been evident at first.” Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, p.4)

5. DEFINING ANALYSIS The word analysis derives from the ancient Greek ‘analusis’, “a breaking up", from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening”. It is a way of taking things apart, breaking them down. Rosenwasser D, and Stephen J (2009) p.3 5 Writing Analytically

6. 5 Writing Analytically DEFINING ANALYSIS • Depending on the context in which it is performed, analysis is sometimes seen as something negative. • It may be seen as destructiverather than constructive • negative rather than positive • reductiverather thanexpansive • HOWEVER • we could see analysis as a creative process which does reduce things to smaller units, but also • aims at rebuilding them into more complete systems. Therefore • both the breaking down and the rebuilding processes aid our understanding.

7. 5 Writing Analytically Analysis is all about RELATIONS A is the same as B identity A is differenttoB difference A is both the same as and different to B identity AND difference A is neither the same as nor different to B neither identity nor difference – another explanatory frame is required

8. 5 Writing Analytically DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ANALYSIS and SYNTHESIS According to Onwuegbuzie and Fels (2016, p.224) analysis precedes synthesis and is clearly distinguished from it. “…analysisof information involves systematically breaking down...information into its constituent parts.” “…synthesis involves making connections among the parts that were identifiedvia the analysis.”

9. 5 Writing Analytically SIX STEPS FOR QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS (O’Leary, 2010, p.268.) STEP 1 Identify biases/note overall impressions STEP 2: Reduce and code into themes STEP 3: Search for patterns and interconnections STEP 4: Map and build themes STEP 5: Build and verify theories STEP 6: Draw conclusions

10. 5 Writing Analytically THE PROCESS OF REFLECTIVE ANALYSIS (O’Leary, 2010, p.231.)

11. 5 Writing Analytically FIVE ANALYTICAL MOVES (Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10) MOVE 1Suspend Judgement MOVE 2Identify significant parts and how they are related MOVE 3Make the implicit explicit MOVE 4Look for patterns MOVE 5Look for anomalies

12. 5 Writing Analytically • MOVE 1 Suspend judgement • Analysis aims tofind out things we don’t know, or clarify understandings we already have. • Our thinking is conditioned by previous experiences and is largely unconscious. • Pre-judging may block your attempts at deepening your understanding. • Think of your mind as a blank page on which you would like to start writing. • Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10)

13. 5 Writing Analytically • MOVE 2 Identify significant parts and how they are related • Find out what things are. (naming, classifying) • Find out how these things are related. (similarities, differences, correlations, contradictions)

14. 5 Writing Analytically MOVE 3 Make the implicit explicit Drawing out implications in the object you are analysing means that you are making inferences. Bring what is hidden in to full view. Implication: An aspect inherent in the objectyou are studying, which you bring into view. Inference: Describes the process of thinkingwhich draws out the implication. Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10)

15. 5 Writing Analytically • MOVE 4 Look for Patterns • Everything we do in our research is about relations. • The relations between parts being analysed may appear random or insignificant. • However, relations are best understood in terms of patterns: • look for patterns of resemblance or repetition • look for for binary oppositions • look for anomalies • . • Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10)

16. 5 Writing Analytically • MOVE 4 Patterns of Repetition or Resemblance • An important part of the analytical process is searching for repetition. • Repetition of an element indicates its importance relative to other elements. • The element may not always appear in exactly the same form. It may be appear in different words, shapes or contexts. • . • Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10)

17. 5 Writing Analytically MOVE 4 Patterns of Difference CONTRADICTION NEGATIVE CORRELATION as well as dissimilarity · contrast · distinction · distinctness · differentiation · variance · variation · variability · divergence · deviation · polarity· gulf · breach · gap · split · disparity · imbalance unevenness· incongruity · contradiction · contradistinction · nonconformity · unlikeness · contrariety · dissimilitude Oxford Dictionaries | The World's Most Trusted Dictionary Provider https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/

18. 5 Writing Analytically Patterns of Binary Opposition Intracellular/Extracellular Tradition/Modernity Nature/Culture

19. 5 Writing Analytically A Word of Warning About Binary Oppositions O/1 Good/Evil Male/Female Nature/Culture Birth/Death Worldly/Otherworldly Original/Copy Inside/Outside Are they so clearly divided? How about a third category called ‘in-between’? The liminal? The undecidable?

20. 5 Writing Analytically MOVE 5 Look for Anomalies Things which stand out – seem strange, peculiar, unusual; they just don’t seem to fit in. ANAMOLIES MAY BE CRUCIAL TO DEVELOPING YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION Or EVEN SUGGEST A WHOLE NEW DIRECTION IN YOUR RESEARCH

21. 5 Writing Analytically Keep reformulating questions! (Rosenwasser and Stephen 2009, pp. 3-10) Which details seem significant? What does the detail mean? What else might it mean? How do the details fit together? What does this pattern of details mean? What else might it mean? What details don’t seem to fit? What does this new pattern mean?

22. WORK CLOSELY WITH YOUR SOURCES 5 Strategies for Analysing Sources (Rosenwasser and Stephen 2009, pp. 219-221) 1. “Make your sources speak - quote, paraphrase or summarize in order toanalyse.” 2. “Attend carefully to the language of your sources by quoting or paraphrasing them.” 3. “Supply ongoing analysis of sources – don’t wait until the end; analyse AS you quote or paraphrase.” 4. “Use your sources to ask questions– not just to provide answers.” 5. “Put your sources in conversationwith on another” Rossenwasser & Stephen, 2009, p.219. Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10) 5 Writing Analytically

23. PARAPHRASE as a form of analysis • A paraphrase is not like a summary. • A paraphrase is a way of exploring meaning. • A paraphrase helps you avoid skipping over the words. • Remember: our use of words also constructs the reality we are trying to explain. • (Rosenwasser and Stephen 2009, p.33) 5 Writing Analytically

24. 5 Writing Analytically THEMES AND THREADS Locate repetitions of a similar kind of detail or word: THESE ARE CALLED ‘STRANDS’ For example: ‘big’, ‘large’, immense’, ‘enormous’, massive’ , ‘consensus’, ‘agreement’, ‘majority’, ‘concord’ . . Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10)

25. LOCATING STRANDS (Commentary on Genesis 11:6-7- on God creating languages & nations) “Thus God scattered human beings across the face of the earth, and they divided into nations. According to this origin myth, the birth of nations is also the beginning of multiplicity and diversity, national experiences are, therefore, particular and universal at the same time. The universal national narrative enfolds itself in many forms; thus there is more than one exodus, one divine redemption, or one moment of liberation for all humankind. Liberation and self-determination are universal experiences, but each nation encounters them its own particular way. This is the essence of the reiterative view of nationalism.” Tamir, Yael ‘The Enigma of Nationalism World Politics (1995), 47: 418-440, p.418 5 Writing Analytically

26. 5 Writing Analytically LOCATING STRANDS (Commentary on Genesis 11:6-7- on God creating languages & nations) “Thus God scattered human beings across the face of the earth, and they divided into nations. According to this origin myth, the birth of nations is also the beginning of multiplicity and diversity, national experiences are, therefore, particular and universal at the same time. The universal national narrative enfolds itself in many forms; thus there is more than one exodus, one divine redemption, or one moment of liberation for all humankind. Liberation and self-determination are universal experiences, but each nation encounters them its own particular way. This is the essence of the reiterative view of nationalism.” Tamir, Yael ‘The Enigma of Nationalism World Politics (1995), 47: 418-440, p.418

27. 5 Writing Analytically IDENTIFYING BINARY OPPOSITIONS “The term imagined inevitably raises questions. Are there communities which are not imagined? It might be the case that the difference among groups and communities lies exactly in the sphere of characteristic features, and consequently that all communities are, by definition, imagined. Are imagined communities less real than groups?... If real is taken to mean ‘existing as a fact’ then, as every realist in international relations will attest, the existence of imagined communities is a social fact. The term imagined communities is therefore not to be used synonymously with imaginary ones.” (Anderson, B. 1983. 1991. Imagined Communities. London: Verso.)

28. 5 Writing Analytically IDENTIFYING BINARY OPPOSITIONS “The term imagined inevitably raises questions. Are there communities which are not imagined? It might be the case that the difference among groups and communities lies exactly in the sphere of characteristic features, and consequently that all communities are, by definition, imagined. Are imaginedcommunities lessrealthan groups?... If real is taken to mean ‘existing as a fact’ then, as every realist in international relations will attest, the existence of imagined communities is a social fact. The term imaginedcommunities is therefore not to be used synonymously with imaginaryones.” (Anderson, B. 1983. 1991. Imagined Communities. London: Verso.)

29. 5 Writing Analytically BEWARE OF FALSE BINARIES • This text begins with reference to an apparent BINARY structure: • REAL / IMAGINED • But then complicates the issue, by claiming that this is a FALSE BINARY. • In other words, imagined communities ARE real. • That is, imagined communities ARE NOT imaginary.

30. ’10 - ON - 1 Analysis’ • ‘10 - on - 1’ allows ten observations/implications about one representative • piece of evidence. • Aims of ’10 – on - 1’: • “To locate the range of possible meanings your evidence suggests.” • “To make you less inclined to cling to your first claim.” • “To open the way for you to discover the complexity of your subject.” • “To slow down the rush to generalization.” • (Rosenwasser & Stephen, 2009, p.128) • . • Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10) 5 Writing Analytically

31. ‘10 ON 1 Analysis’ used to explore other examples . Rosenwasser and Stephen (2009, pp. 3-10) 5 Writing Analytically Point 1 One Representative Example Point 2 Point 3 (Rosenwasser & Stephen, 2009, p.127.) Point 4 Point 5 Point 6 Point 10 Ex. 1 Ex. 2 CONCLUSION

32. 5 Writing Analytically INTERPRETATION “All correct interpretation must be on guard against arbitrary fancies and the limitations imposed by imperceptible habits of thought…” (Gadamer, 1975, p.236) An interpretive context is a lens…depending on the context you choose…..you will see different things.” (Rossenwasser & Stephen, p.58)

33. 5 Writing Analytically INTERPRETATION IMPLICATIONS vs HIDDEN MEANINGS Two important phrases we need to be careful of: “HIDDEN MEANINGS” and “READING BETWEEN THE LINES” Interpretation is not a mysterious process – “ implicit meanings are really ‘there’, even though they are not stated directly.” (Rossenwasser & Stephen, p.54)

34. 5 Writing Analytically INTERPRETATION Inferring implications from observations “In the female brain, there are more connections between the right hemisphere (emotions, spatial reasoning) and the left hemisphere (verbal facility). In the male brain, these two hemispheres remain more separate.” (Rossenwasser & Stephen, p.55) MAKE A LIST OF IMPLICATIONS

35. 5 Writing Analytically • INTERPRETATION • Inferring implications from observations • “After you have made your list of implications…consider how you arrived at them. On the • basis of this experience, how would you answer the following questions?” • “What is the difference between an idea being ‘hidden’ and an idea being ‘implied’?” • “What, in other words, is an implication?” • “To what extent do you think others would arrive at the same implications that you • did?” • (Rossenwasser & Stephen, p.55)

36. INTERPRETATION • Interpretation takes you from the first analytical steps to • Identifying and naming elements • Identifying patterns and relationships • to • then asking the question • SO WHAT? • THIS IS WHERE YOU MAKE MEANING OF THE DATA • Rosenwasser D & Stephen J (2009), P.49 5 Writing Analytically

37. INTERPRETATION • TURNING OBSERVATIONS INTO CONCLUSIONS: • ASKING ‘SO WHAT’? • Asking ‘so what?’ is simply an abbreviated way of asking such questions as: • What does the observation imply? • Why does the observation matter? • Where does this observation get us? • How can we begin to generalize about the subject? • (Rosenwasser & Stephen pp. 56-57) 5 Writing Analytically

38. INTERPRETATION: WHAT ARE THE LIMITS? “There are powerful limits on interpretation because: • “Meanings are bound by the rules of logic and evidence.” • “Meanings always occur within one or more particular interpretive contexts.” Rosenwasser & Stephen pp. 56-57

39. BALANCING CREATIVITY AND RIGOUR Some good advice (O’Leary, 2010, p.261) “Think outside the square … yet stay squarely on target. Be original, innovative, imaginative … yet know where you want to go. Use your intuition … but be able to share the logic of that intuition. Be fluid and flexible … yet deliberate and methodical. Be inspired, imaginative and ingenious … yet realistic and practical.”

40. 5 Writing Analytically REFERENCES Anderson, B. 1991. Imagined Communities. London: Verso. Gadamer, H. 1975. Truth and Method.New York: Continuum. Lipton, P. 2005. “Does the Truth Matter in Science?” Arts & Humanities in Higher Education. Vol 4(2) 173-183. O’Leary, Zina. 2010. The essential guide to doing your research project. London: Sage. Onwuegbuzie, A & Rebecca Frels. 2016. 7 Steps to a comprehensive literature review. London: Sage. Rosenwasser D, and Stephen J 2009/2012.Writing analytically. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.