Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventions

1. Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventions November 21, 2013 Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 Heidi Hahn and Jennie Stumpf Regions 5 and 7 SLD Trainers

2. Agenda • Chapter 6 – Spelling • Chapter 7 – Handwriting and Written Expression • Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving • Chapter 10 – Relevance of Cognitive Abilities to Academic Interventions Please watch for a follow-up survey in your e-mail

3. Chapter #6 - Spelling • Spelling Development “Reading requires only recognition, whereas spelling requires the complete recall of every letter in the correct sequence.” Characteristics of children with Spelling Difficulties • Weakness in phonemic awareness • Difficulty understanding spelling rules • Difficulty with word structure and letter patterns • Visual memory problem specific to letters and words

4. Language Components of Spelling • Phonology: knowledge of speech sounds • Orthography: knowledge of spelling patterns • Morphology: knowledge of meaning units • Vocabulary: knowledge of word meanings • Regular Words – words that conform to the most common English spelling patterns and rules • Irregular/Exception Words – one or more elements to do not conform to the common English spelling patterns (i.e. sight words)

5. Developmental Stages • Emergent or Prephonemic – Preschool to Kndg “Understands that letters communicate meaning and can be written.” • Early Letter Name/Semiphonetic – Kndg. – 2nd Grade “Child has discovered the alphabetic principle & developed some knowledge of sound-letter relationships” • Middle to late letter name/phonetic (early 1st – late 2nd gr.) “Represents both consonant and vowel sounds; usually writes one letter for each sound.”

6. Development Stages - Continued • Within word pattern spelling/transitional (1st-4th) “mastered most diagraphs and consonant blends………” • Syllables and affixes spelling (Upper Elem – MS) “spelling of multisyllabic words” • Derivational relations spelling (MS – Adulthood) “Still lack knowledge of word derivations…….focus on the relationships among word structures, word origins and word meanings”

7. Analyzing Spelling Errors: • Are the sounds of words in the correct order? • Is there an omittion or addition of certain sounds from words? • Did they spell the irregular elements of words correctly? • Are there vowels in every syllable? • Did they spell the homophones correctly? • Did they spell the common affixes correctly? • Do they understand how to form plurals and change verb tense?

8. Effective Instruction • Segmenting spoken words into their sounds • Matching the sounds to the letter correspondences • Spelling common orthographic patterns • Learning and practicing common spelling rules • Spelling irregular words with emphasis on the irregular parts • Adding affixes to words • Spelling different syllable types • Spelling word derivatives • Learning about word origins

9. Model Instruction: • Word Sorts • Spelling Rules – Page 130 • Spelling Tests • Spelling Flow Lists • Individualized accommodations – certain words for certain students – needs • Spelling irregular words • Multisensory spelling method • **Commercial Spelling programs – p. 134 • **Spelling related Web Sites – p. 135

10. Chapter 6 – Spelling • Any final questions related to spelling?

11. Chapter 7 – Handwriting and Written Expression • Writing is a complex task that requires the integration of multiple cognitive, linguistic and motor abilities • Writing may be the most complex task students are asked to perform in school because of the integration of so many different skills • Many students with writing difficulties can formulate clear, coherent ideas, but they then have trouble translating these thoughts into written form

12. Chapter 7 – Handwriting and Written Expression • Writing involves: • Low level transcription skills • Handwriting, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and grammar • High level composition skills • Planning, content, organization and revision • It is estimated that 60% of medication errors result from illegible handwriting or transcription errors

13. Chapter 7 – Handwriting • Handwriting • While technology certainly is used for a large portion of writing, the need for legible handwriting has not disappeared • There has been a decreasing emphasis on handwriting instruction and competence over the past several decades • Only 12% of teachers have even taken a course in how to teach handwriting • Hand writing has been identified as an important predictor of the quality of written expression • Fluent, automatic handwriting has been linked to the quality of compositions

14. Chapter 7 – Handwriting • If a student has to think about letter formation and production, the quality of the written expression will suffer because cognitive resources are focused on how to write rather than what to write • Children in Kindergarten – Fourth grade think and write at the same time. Only later do students begin thinking about their writing apart from their handwriting

15. Chapter 7 – Handwriting • Characteristics of Students Struggling with Handwriting • Poor motor abilities or coordination problems • Difficulty with memory of letter forms • Weakness in orthographic processing (coding) • Store and retrieve sound-symbol associations • Poor handwriting is an early warning sign of students at risk for problems with written expression • Automatic letter writing has been found to be the best predictor of composition length and quality

16. Chapter 7 – Handwriting • Effective Handwriting Instruction • Formal handwriting instruction is most effective • Lessons should be short, 5 to 10 minutes, and followed by an opportunity to use handwriting in a meaningful manner • Teach: • Letter formation (page 144) • Keyboarding and Technology (page145)

17. Chapter 7 – Handwriting • Formation • Writing Aids • Pencil grip or weight • Raised-line paper • Commercial Writing Programs • Handwriting Without Tears • Developmentally based, flexible curriculum for teaching handwriting to children in preschool through grade 5

18. Chapter 7 – Handwriting • Keyboarding and Technology • Keyboarding skills should be taught to children beginning in first grade, especially those children who struggle with handwriting • Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing • Speech Recognition Software • Dragon Naturally Speaking (translates speech into text)

19. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Writing is often called the “Neglected R” because it ahs not received the same intensity of focus from researchers, educators, or legislators as reading or math • It is estimated that states spend one quarter of a billion dollars annually to remediate employees’ writing difficulties

20. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Characteristics of Students Struggling with Written Expression • Lack awareness of what good writing is and do not know how to produce it • Lack knowledge of text structures (genre) and content • Do not plan before or during writing • Do not monitor their own performance • Show poor attention and concentration • Limited language skills (vocabulary, syntax, morphology)

21. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Characteristics of Students Struggling with Written Expression continued: • Students struggling in writing have coexisting difficulties in other areas • Writing problems are frequently present in students with attention problems, possibly due to the number of elements that must be integrated and attended to when writing • Students with reading difficulties often exhibit difficulties in writing because of the common perceptual and linguistic demands required of both tasks

22. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Often times a student’s writing difficulties are not noticed until about fourth grade because it is at this point that writing demands increase from minimal level (providing single word responses or filling in blanks) to higher-level demands (composing)

23. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Effective Written Expression Instruction • The quality of instruction students receive has a major impact on writing achievement • Teach the Writing Process (page 150 – 151) • Prewriting • Writing/Drafting • Revision • Editing • Publishing

24. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Effective Written Expression Instruction • Three Effective Elements for Improving Written Expression (page 151 – 152) • Use a framework of planning, writing, and revising • Explicitly teach critical steps in the writing process • Provide relevant feedback on what is taught • Ten Recommendations for Improving Writing (page 153)

25. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Effective Written Expression Instruction • Strategy Instruction • Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) (page 153 – 154) • A writing strategy approached that is a supplemental method designed to help students learn, use, and adopt the strategies of a skilled writer • Build Writing Vocabulary • Teach Text Structures • Narrative Writing • Expository Writing • Teach Revising and Editing Strategies (page 157 – 160)

26. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Effective Written Expression Instruction • Technology (page 161) • Draft: Builder, Co-Writer, Write: Outloud, Read: Outloud • Writing Workshop • Focuses on the process of writing more than the end product • High quality workshops should include: • Explicit modeling • Frequent conferencing • High Expectations • Flexibility • Cooperative learning • Self-regulation

27. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Effective Written Expression Instruction • Writing portfolio (page 162) • Writing frames (page 162) • Graphic organizers (page 162) • Writing Prompts (page 163) • Provide Models (page 163)

28. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Example Accommodations of Instructional Materials • Highlight key words or phrases • Simplify language used in writing prompts • Use graphic organizers and procedural checklists • Display mnemonic strategies in the classroom so students can access these cutes • Develop individual spelling lists and have students keep personal dictionaries of troublesome words • Provide (as needed) pencil grips, raised or colored line paper, personal alphabet strips, and paper positioning marks on a student’s desk

29. Chapter 7 –Written Expression • Example Modifications of Task Demands • Increase time to complete tasks • Decrease length or complexity of writing assignment • Use text frames (partially completed text) • Reduce or eliminate copying tasks • Permit use of dictation or a scribe • Permit use of a word processor • Use technology supports (spell checker, voice recognition, semantic mapping, outline software) • Allow other means of demonstrating assignment (oral versus written)

30. Chapter 7 –Handwriting and Written Expression • Summary • Writing is a highly complex task that is susceptible to difficulties in a multitude of areas • Students must be proficient and automatic with the low-level foundational skills of handwriting and spelling in order to build fluency and free cognitive resources for the higher-level tasks of planning, composing, and revising • The most effective writing instruction is explicit instruction • When combined with explicit strategy instruction, students experience more success in developing the writing skills needed to clearly convey their ideas, feelings, and their knowledge

31. Chapter 7 – Handwriting and Written Expression • Any final questions related to handwriting and written expression?

32. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Difficulties with math have received less attention from researchers and educators than have difficulties with reading • Between 5 and 8% of school-age children have significant problems with math • More than 60% of students identified as having a learning disability in reading are also achieving below grade level in math

33. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Difficulties with math may result from numerous sources, including impairments in: • Working memory • Processing Speed • Language • Attention • Sequencing • Spatial skills • Reasoning

34. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • A student’s success in math reflects the efficacy of the instruction and can be negatively impacted by: • Poor teaching • The design and materials of the curriculum **Due to the cumulative nature of math with one skill building on another, poor instruction at any level may impede future success

35. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Special education training programs and professional development opportunities focus disproportionally on the delivery of reading rather than math interventions • Both special and general educators take few courses in methods for teaching math and are often inadequately prepared to teach math skills, particularly at the secondary level

36. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Some curriculum designs can be especially troublesome for students that struggle with math • Spiraling curriculums • Introduces a number of important concepts and then returns to those concepts in successive years • In one year, the time devoted to a concept may be too limited for students that do not learn readily • Teaching to mastery • Doesn’t allow ample opportunities to practice “mastered” skills so it may leave to a false conclusion about the student’s true skill level • Frequently, a struggling student’s performance is uneven – the student demonstrates proficiency one day but not the next • Focusing on procedures versus understanding • Focus on learning the algorithms instead of developing concept understanding

37. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Characteristics of Individuals Struggling with Basic Math Skills • Difficulty storing and retrieving basic math facts • Cognitive problems • Long term memory • Memory span • Working memory • Attention • Processing speed • Weaknesses in oral language abilities • Students who struggle with basic math computations also have difficulty completing math problems that involve multiple steps

38. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Number Sense • The child’s fluidity and flexibility with numbers, as well as understanding of what numbers mean and their relationships to others • Foundational skill that serves as a prerequisite for math success • Usually develops during the preschool years and most children have an initial understanding in place by the age of 4 or 5 • No one best way to teach • Use of problem-centered curriculum that emphasizes student interactions and self-generated solutions has shown to be effective

39. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Math Facts and Fluency • Drill and practice approaches are frequently recommended for helping students master math facts • As children work on building automaticity of facts, they should continue to receive instruction in more complex computation and problem solving. • Give them supports such a pocket sized fact chart to reference

40. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Effective Instruction (page 174 – 180) • Direct, explicit instruction with cumulative review • Most effective instructional approach for teaching basic or isolated skills • Demonstration or modeling by the teacher, followed by guided practice with immediate feedback, and then independent practice to master the skill • Strategy instruction • Strategies need to be taught and practiced in a clear, explicit manner • Mnemonics, visual images, flashcards, rhymes, etc. • Practice • Board games, computer-assisted instruction, self-correcting materials, cover-copy-compare,

41. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Concrete Representations • Illustrate math concepts with concrete objects or manipulatives • Children can develop mental images of math concepts • Can be helpful at any age, especially when introducing a new math concept • Concrete-Representational-Abstract (CRA) • Instruction begins at the concrete level, transitions to a semi concrete or representational level (pictures) and then evolves to the abstract level (numerals, symbols) • Students may require up to seven lessons at the concrete and semi concrete levels before being able to handle abstract-level problems

42. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Explicit Timings • 1 minute timings • Provide students with a worksheet of problems that cannot be completed within 1 minute • Have students complete as many problems as they can within the minute • Ask students to stop after 1 minute • Score the sheet by counting the number of correct and incorrect digits written • Plot the total number of correct digits on a graph

43. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Other effective teaching methods (pages 185 – 190) • Reciprocal Peer Tutoring • Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies and Cross-Age Tutoring • Commercial Products • Number Worlds • PALS Math • TouchMath • Structural Arithmetic • Software and Web-based Resources

44. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Error Analysis • One of the most effective ways to help resolve a student’s errors on basic math computation • Analyze any mistakes on standardized tests, classroom exams, school papers, and homework assignments • Determine the reasons why a student missed a certain problem • Students will continue to make the same types of errors unless intervention occurs • If you can’t figure out why a student missed a problem, ask the student to explain step-by-step what they were doing to solve the problem

45. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Monitor Student Progress • Helps students become more aware of their growth • Provides teachers with valuable information about the effectiveness of their instruction and whether or not adjustments are needed • Having students chart their own progress not only motivates the students, but it also frees the teacher from this task

46. Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills • Any final questions related to basic math skills?

47. Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving • Math is one of the most challenging academic areas because it is comprised of numerous domains that continue to increase in complexity • Almost 1/5 of the U.S. population experiences high levels of math anxiety • Research has found that individuals struggling with math often use immature behaviors, such as counting on their fingers • Over 30% of individuals diagnosed with ADHD are also diagnosed with math learning disabilities • Due to working memory and executive function problems

48. Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving • Characteristics of Individuals Struggling with Math Problem Solving • No clear research on what the characteristics are for students struggling in math problem solving • May include: • Processing speech • Short-term memory • Working memory • Oral language abilities • Race and poverty • Executive functions (planning, inhibiting responses, shifting attention, and monitoring strategies)

49. Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving • Although problem solving is recognized as a critical element of mathematics by researchers and national organizations, the emphasis in classrooms, especially special education classrooms, continues to be on memorization of facts and computational procedures. • Little time is spent on developing the conceptual and procedural knowledge and strategies necessary for problem solving • Problems • Instructional time • Textbooks

50. Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving • Teachers state that word problems are the most problematic math problems for students • Students struggle with following the multiple steps of the problem and understanding exactly what the problem is asking them to do • Effective problem solving requires that an individual can: • Represent the problem accurately • Visualize the elements of the problem • Understand the relationships among numbers • Use self-regulating • Understand the meaning of the language and vocabulary