Lex orandi , lex credendi : An Overview of the History of the Liturgy

1. Lex orandi, lexcredendi: An Overview of the History of the Liturgy Fr. Llane Briese

2. Lexorandi, lexcredendi Why Liturgy Matters: “The Law to be Prayed, the Law to be Believed”

3. An Axiom for Liturgy • The axiom lexorandi, lexcredendi illustrates how the Liturgy is central to the Church’s faith and practice • Vincent of Lerins (d. 450): “…quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus oratum est.” • What is prayed: • Wherever • Always • By All • Liturgy is both conservative and progressive.

4. Conclusion: Reasons for Historical Development • Liturgy develops due to several forces: • Practical Necessity • Doctrinal Crisis • Theological Reflection • Cultural Influence • Historical Accident • “Organic Development” • In discussing Liturgy, avoid two fallacies: • Originalism: The idea that all development is a corruption. • Naïve Approach to Development: The idea that all development is perfect and beyond question.

5. An Historical Overview of the Roman Liturgy The Eras of Development in the Roman Rite

6. The Liturgy Stabilizes (IV-VI c.) • Reminder: Christ gave the Order to Repeat, but didn’t specify a great number of details. • Each major local Church (e.g. Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, etc.) has its own rite, fulfilling Jesus’ command in its own way. • Our Principal Focus: Roman Rite • Christianity is legalized in 313 with the Edict of Milan by Constantine. • Once legal, liturgy can occur in public, thus giving it a more stable form and greater liturgical freedom: • Liturgical Calendar adds feasts (Dec. 25, Feb. 22, etc.) • Basilicas Built (including the original St. Peter’s)

7. The Liturgy Stabilizes (IV-VI c.) • Late IV c: Roman Christians no longer understand Greek; hence Latin is adopted by 360 (Pope St. Damasus I). • Roman culture dominates: simplicity and sobriety. • Examples: • Washing of Hands: Hygienic Necessity • Language Was Veiled: Prayers Refer to Eucharist as “food and drink”, “sacrament”, “heavenly gifts”, and “saving gifts” instead of more explicit references to Real Presence. (This does NOT mean that the Roman Church did not believe in the Real Presence.)

8. The Liturgy Stabilizes (IV-VI c.) • Further Development: • Late V c: Kyrie Eleison introduced. • Early VI c.: Gloria in excelsis introduced. • Late VI c: Pope St. Gregory the Great places the Lord’s Prayer immediately after the Eucharistic Prayer instead of after the Breaking of the Bread. • Era illustrates development within Tradition: • “The earliest composition of liturgical texts in the Roman Rite reveals a dynamic not unlike what happened in other rites: a new type of improvisation based on faithful observance of certain canons, guidelines, or principles that were handed on within the local church from one generation to the next. A set of texts was prepared for a specific celebration and then placed in the local archives as a record of the celebration.” (K. Pecklers, The Genius of the Roman Rite, p. 9)

9. The Liturgy Stabilizes (IV-VI c.) • Three main types of Roman Liturgy Develop: • 1) Solemn Papal “Stational “ Mass • Still marked by noble simplicity • Pope processed to the stational Church of the day, making the whole city a sacred space (common of major solemnities and during Lent). • 2) Presbyteral Liturgy: Celebrated in tituli by Presbyters (Priests). • 3) Simplified Masses without Deacon or Choir • Roman Canon uses elegant and formal language and includes Roman court gestures such as beating the breast, bows, and genuflections.

10. Evaluation of Era #1: IV-VI c. • Strengths: • Bears witness in a simple way to a growing faith of the Church and its organization. • Provides an early example of the interplay between the unchangeable Tradition and its incarnation in culture. • Weaknesses: • Still very early: Compared to later eras, the theology is not as unpacked. (Its language, which corresponds to contemporary Roman culture, would seem insufficient to many today.)

11. Gaul Meets Rome (VII-XI c.) • Beginning in the seventh century, the people of modern-day France sought to incorporate Roman elements into their liturgy. • Gallican Rite: Marked by much more poetic and dramatic language. • Prayers were longer and marked by many variable parts. • Typically addressed to Christ: Consequence of anti-Arian struggle. • Example: Shift in language from “spirit of adoption” to “spirit of sanctification”; difference in theological emphasis.

12. Gaul Meets Rome (VII-XI c.) • In 783, Charlemagne sought to unify the empire and requested of Pope Hadrian I a pure Roman sacramentary. • Instead, he received a papal book for stational Masses, thus it was incomplete (e.g. nothing for Epiphany and the Easter and Pentecost octaves). • Hence, the Gallicans supplement with their own prayers, thus bringing a strong influence to the Roman Rite.

13. Gaul Meets Rome (VII-XI c.) • Examples of Influence: • Apologetic Prayers: Prayers in which the priest celebrant deprecates himself and insists on his unworthiness. • Poetic compositions including Veni, Creator Spiritus and Easter sequence VictimaePaschaliLaudes debut. • Yet another example of inculturation as two cultures come together. • This Gallican influence was further served by having German popes (bringing with them their Gallicanized liturgies) in the mid-10th century.

14. Gaul Meets Rome (VII-XI c.) • During the pontificate of Pope St. Gregory VII (d. 1085) sought to purify the Roman Rite, largely without success. • During this era, monasteries were the principal locus of learning and development, especially the Monastery at Cluny (after X c. reform): • Emphasis on devotions: Mary, Eucharist, and saints. • Rise of private Masses • All Souls Day debuted in this context. • Clergy were poorly educated; faithful often not formed in the Liturgy, reducing participation and replacing it with allegory. • Missale plenum debuts: Priest does everything himself.

15. Evaluation of Era #2: VII-XI c. • Strengths: • Beautiful Poetic Texts Debut • A Greater Unity in Western Europe • Liturgical Actions Often Acquire Added Meanings (Example of Priest’s Hand Washing) • Weaknesses: • Liturgy Becomes Somewhat Uneven in Approach • Clericalization of the Liturgy; for the Laity, Allegorization Replaces Participation • Minimalism Becomes the Norm • East-West Schism Finalized in 1054

16. Influence of Scholastics (XII-XV c.) • XIII c: Best known for the rise of the great medieval scholars such as St. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1280) and the reform movements led by SS. Dominic (d. 1221) and Francis of Assisi (d. 1226) • 1215: Lateran Council IV defines dogma of transubstantiation. • XIII c: Debut of Solemnity of Corpus Christi; St. Thomas Aquinas wrote the Office, including Adoro Te Devote and Pange lingua (includes Tantum Ergo) • Growth of the University of Paris (development of the modern research university) • The saintly Scholastics are to be credited for the positive aspects of this era and NOT blamed for the negative!

17. Influence of Scholastics (XII-XV c.) • Scholastic Theology began with Peter Lombard (d. 1160) and, when applied to sacramental theology, spoke in five main themes: • The existence of the Sacrament • The essence of the Sacrament (matter and form) • The effects of the Sacrament • The minister of the Sacrament • The subject of the Sacrament (the beneficiary) • Strengths: Intellectual inquiry for its own sake viewed as a means of coming to a deeper knowledge of God (complementing prayer) as well as a deeper precision of faith. • Weaknesses: Turns the divine mysteries into the subject of a textbook, puts the focus on minimal requirements, and moves instruction from the altar to the lecture hall.

18. Influence of Scholastics (XII-XV c.) • Under the influence of the great theological development and combined with the decline of lay participation, the focus shifts: • “Quantity more than quality”: A focus on the “fruits of the Sacrifice of the Mass” makes private celebration most common. • Grace was quantified: Some priests argued that the grace of one Mass was equivalent to what one would gain in 15 years of fasting. • People begin asking the question: “How late may I arrive at Mass and still receive the graces?” • Others would go from altar to altar as different priests would arrive at the moment of consecration (defined as words of institution—the form of the Sacraments was key to the Scholastic theologians.

19. Influence of Scholastics (XII-XV c.) • Positively, this was a time of a fervent faith in the Real Presence and many Eucharistic devotions find their origin in this era, especially Eucharistic Adoration. • Unfortunately, for many, the Real Presence itself became an end to itself instead of a means of participation in the life of the Trinity. • Example: In many places, the Feast of Corpus Christi became more important and more celebrated than Easter!

20. Influence of Scholastics (XII-XV c.) • More Problems Rise in XIV and XV c: • Misplaced Piety: Eucharistic miracles become famous (e.g. Bolsena in 1236); many came to Mass only in the hope of seeing such a miracle. Adoration became more important than Communion. • Rise of Superstition: Caused by an overemphasis on the “fruits” of the Mass. • Individualism: The corporate dimension of worship as the Body of Christ was almost entirely lost in the celebration of Mass. People instead focused on private devotions and spirituality became more individualized (e.g. Thomas a Kempis, Imitation of Christ).

21. Evaluation of Era #3: XII-XV c. • Strengths: • Immense Theological Development • Development of Eucharistic Piety • Weaknesses: • Strong Clericalization of the Liturgy • Eucharistic Piety is Divorced from the Liturgy • Multiplication of Masses Gives Way to Abuses (especially regarding Mass Stipends). • Poorly Formed Clergy

22. The Tridentine Mass: XVI-XIX c. • 1517: Luther begins the Protestant Reformation • 1520: In Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Luther critiques Catholic understanding of the Mass. • 1520s-1530s: Reformers call more of the Church’s faith in the Eucharist into question. • Biggest Issues Related to Liturgy: • Private Masses • Communion Under Both Kinds • Latin as Liturgical Language • Transubstantiation

23. The Tridentine Mass: XVI-XIX c. • The Catholic Response: The Council of Trent (1545-1563) addressed almost every aspect of the Church. • Three sessions concerned the Eucharist: • Session 13 (1551): Affirmed Transubstantiation • Session 21 (1562): Described the Use of the Sacrament • Session 22 (1562): Affirmed the Sacrificial Nature of the Mass. • Greatest Contribution: Clarified the Catholic Understanding of the Eucharist.

24. The Tridentine Mass: XVI-XIX c. • The most important aspect for the Liturgy was its aftermath which saw three characteristics: • Centralization of Authority over the Mass in Rome with the 1588 founding of the Congregation for Sacred Rites. • Emphasis on Rubricsas a Means of Uniformity. • Pastoral Dimension:There was openness on issues such as the use of the vernacular and Communion under Both Kinds, but the bishops did not wish to disturb the faith of the people by seeming to agree with the Protestants.

25. The Tridentine Mass: XVI-XIX c. • A “fortress mentality” starts to develop in the Church in general as the result of the crisis of the Reformation • Example: The Use of the Tabernacle in the Baroque Period. • XVII c: Height of the Baroque Period • Church art and music becomes very appealing to the senses, seeking to draw the person into the divine mysteries. • Art: New St. Peter’s Basilica: Bernini, Michelangelo • Music: Bach, Palestrina, Mozart, Beethoven • XVII c: Missionary Journeys of the Church

26. The Tridentine Mass: XVI-XIX c. • XVII-XVIII c: Jansenism led to greater scrupulosity and hesitancy to receive Holy Communion • 1786: Jansenists in Tuscany (Italy) held the Synod of Pistoia to advocate liturgical reform. Among reforms: • Vernacular • Eucharistic Prayer prayed in a loud voice • People Receive Hosts Consecrated at Same Mass • Marriage Preparation • 1794: Synod’s activity condemned (seen as a threat to Pope’s authority) after bishop was deposed in 1790. • 1832: Prosper Guerangerrefounds monastery at Solesmes (France); begins modern liturgical scholarship (especially on Gregorian chant) but still considers the Liturgy a clerical act.

27. Evaluation of Era #4: XVI-XIX c. • Strengths: • While imperfect (cf. exceptions in Germany and France), the Roman Rite had an almost unprecedented unity throughout the world. • Doctrinal Clarity • Beauty of Artistic and Musical Contributions • Weaknesses: • Liturgy Still a Clerical Activity • Polemics Take Primacy, Creating Distortion • Unity Comes at the Cost of Rigidity • Rubricism

28. Liturgical Movement: XX-XXI c. • Although Gueranger was significant, most experts agree that Lambert Beauduin, O.S.B. founds the liturgical movement in 1909 with his speech at a Belgian labor conference • Called all Christians to “full, conscious, and active participation” in the Church’s life and ministry • Took expression from Pope St. Pius X’s Tra le sollecitudini (1903). • Liturgical scholarship goes back to its biblical, patristic, and other historical sources.

29. Liturgical Movement: XX-XXI c. • Movement moves slowly but grows around the world. • Notable developments by Popes: • 1905: More Frequent Reception of Communion • 1910: First Communion Age Lowered • 1943: Encyclicals DivinoAfflanteSpiritu(on biblical scholarship) and MysticiCorporis Christi (on the Church) • 1947: Encyclical Mediator Dei • 1951: Restored Easter Vigil (had previously been celebrated in the morning of Holy Saturday!) • 1952: Eucharistic Fast Modified • 1955: Reform of the Holy Week Liturgies

30. Liturgical Movement: XX-XXI c. • These liturgical changes provided the forward momentum to Vatican II (1962-1965) which produced its first document on the Liturgy (1963): SacrosanctumConcilium • Approved by a final vote of 2,147 to 4. • Contains 7 Chapters: • 1. General Principles • 2. The Most Sacred Mystery of the Eucharist • 3. The Other Sacraments and Sacramentals • 4. The Divine Office • 5. The Liturgical Year • 6. Sacred Music • 7. Sacred Art and Sacred Furnishings

31. Liturgical Movement: XX-XXI c. • SC 14 calls for “fully conscious and active participation” as demanded by Baptism. • SC 50 describes the structural reform: “The rite of the Mass is to be revised in such a way that the intrinsic nature and purpose of its several parts, as also the connection between them, may be more clearly manifested, and that devout and active participation by the faithful may be more easily achieved. For this purpose the rites are to be simplified, due care being taken to preserve their substance; elements which, with the passage of time, came to be duplicated, or were added with but little advantage, are now to be discarded; other elements which have suffered injury through accidents of history are now to be restored to their vigor which they had in the days of the holy Fathers, as may seem useful or necessary.”

32. Liturgical Movement: XX-XXI c. • To carry out the reform, a special council was formed called the Consilium which worked on revising the Mass from 1964-1969. • New Missal promulgated on Holy Thursday 1969. • Changes include: • Permission to Translate into the Vernacular • Four Eucharistic Prayers (instead of only one) • Reformed Liturgical Calendar • Omission of Several Later Accretions • Restored Prayer of the Faithful • Rubrics Greatly Simplified • New Lectionary

33. Liturgical Movement: XX-XXI c. • The 1970s and 1980s were a time of implementation and rapid change, much of it uneven: • Differences in Scholarly Opinion • In many places, rubrics are entirely disregarded and many anomalies and abuses creep into the Liturgy (including a few grievous travesties). • In others, an unintended crisis of faith ensues, perhaps caused by too much change too quickly (some possibly ill-conceived). • Inculturation, at times without direction • Trying to find the balance between tradition and relevance.

34. Liturgical Movement: XX-XXI c. • A Reform of the Reform? • By the 1990s, many had become discontented if not with the post-Vatican II Liturgy, with aspects of its application. • 1984 and 1988: Concessions Given to Use the Former Rite • 2000: Third Edition of the MissaleRomanum • 2001: LiturgiamAuthenticam • 2003: Ecclesia de Eucharistia • 2004: RedemptionisSacramentum • 2007: SacramentumCaritatisand SummorumPontificum • 2008: Amendments to the 3rd ed. of MissaleRomanum • 2011: New English Missal • 2013: Name of St. Joseph Added to Eucharistic Prayers

35. Evaluation of Era #5: XX-XXI c. • Strengths: • Based on Strong Historical Scholarship • Seeks to Unify the Liturgical Prayer of the Laity and Clergy While Maintaining Proper Roles • Opened the Doors to a Greater Use of Scripture and Inculturation • Dispensed with Polemics • Weaknesses: • Removed Some of the Doctrinal Safeguards • Liturgical Abuses Proliferate • The Library Sometimes Overtook the Sanctuary • Loss of Reverence • Too Much Too Quickly?