Dr Clive Smith Department of Education Leadership and Management University of Johannesburg

1. Perceived collective teacher efficacy: A little idea with big impact (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2007:944) Dr Clive Smith Department of Education Leadership and Management University of Johannesburg csmith@uj.ac.za

2. Introduction • Individual perceptions of self-efficacy (SE) to bring about personal behaviour change are convincing predictors of individual behaviour (Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2000:480). • Since the 1980s convincing evidence has been found of a relationship between teachers’ perceived SE and teachers’ behaviours that positively influence pupil academic achievement (Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2000:480; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2007:611)

3. Bandura (1997) characterises perceived self SE as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments in specific situations or contexts” (p.2). • It is one’s belief in what one can achieve (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007:621).

4. The concept of perceived SE is grounded in Bandura’s (1977, 1986, 1997, 2006) social cognitive theory (SCT) of human agency. Human agency concerns the beliefs and ways that people can intentionally act to change their behaviour and thereby exercise influence. • In SCT, all self-efficacy belief constructs are future-oriented judgments about capabilities to pursue a particular course of action in order to achieve a particular goal under specific circumstances (Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:3).

5. SCT recognises that “personal agency operates within a broad network of sociostructural influences” (Bandura,1997:6), meaning that perceived levels of ability in any specific situation are mediated by the social interaction norms prevailing in that situation (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy & Hoy, 1998). The theory therefore “extends the analysis of mechanisms of human agency to the exercise of collective agency” (Bandura, 1997:7), peoples shared beliefs that by working together they can make a difference.

6. Within an organisation, perceived collective efficacy represents the beliefs of group members concerning, “the performance capability of a social system as a whole” (Bandura, 1997:469).

7. Perceived collective teacher efficacy (CTE) is therefore primarily a function of teachers’ interactions with colleagues and refers to individual teachers’ perceptions or judgments of the attributes and capabilities of the groups to which they belong (Klassen, Usher and Bong, 2010:466). These are mostly unarticulated perceptions. • Bandura (1993), in a groundbreaking study, found that CTE perceptions predicted school-level pupil achievement. Successful schools are characterised by teachers’ collective sense of efficacy to enable pupils to learn and develop (Klassen et al. 2010:465).

8. Despite the aforementioned research that has found links between teachers’ collective perceptions of their own efficacy and pupil achievement, perceived CTE has been largely neglected by researchers (Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2000:480; Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:3). Goddard (2001) referred to perceived CTE as a “neglected construct” in education research (p.467).

9. Besides this dearth of research on perceived CTE, there are at least two research findings that are of particular note for a SA context. First, perceived CTE has been shown to be a more powerful predictor of pupil academic achievement than pupils’ socio-economic status (SES), race, family background, urbanicity and previous academic achievement (Bandura, 1993; Goddard, 2001; Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004; Goddard, LoGerfo & Hoy, 2004; Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004; Goddard & Skrla, 2006; Klassen et al., 2010; McCoach & Colbert, 2010).That perceived CTE has a mediating role in the effect of socioeconomic status and other demographic variables on pupil academic achievement is good news.

10. A second research finding that is of particular interest for SA educators, that is a corollary of the relationship between perceived CTE and pupil academic achievement, is that perceived CTE has been found to be associated with successful and sustained school change and improvement (McCoach and Colbert, 2010:33)

11. Some caveats • It is important at the outset to note that perceived CTE is just that. It is a perception and not to be confused with actual assessments of ability, competence, effectiveness or performance. Terms used include efficacy judgments, perceptions of efficacy, sense of efficacy, perceived efficacy, estimations of efficacy or efficacy beliefs. As Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy (2004) point out, all these terms connote judgments about capabilities to accomplish a task” (p.4).

12. However, despite efficacy being a perception, it has real consequences. People often over- or underestimate their efficacy. These estimations influence their choices of action and the effort they exert in pursuing those courses of action. Such over- or underestimations of efficacy may also influence how well people use their skills. • Bandura (1997) observed, “A capability is only as good as its execution. The self-assurance with which people approach and manage difficult tasks determines whether they make good or poor use of their capabilities. Insidious self-doubts can easily overrule the best of skills” (p.35).

13. It is also important to distinguish perceived CTE from other self-conceptions, such as self-concept and self-esteem. According to Gist and Mitchell (1992), “Self-esteem usually is considered to be a trait reflecting an individual’s characteristic affective evaluation of self (e.g., feelings of self-worth or self-liking). By contrast, . . . (perceived efficacy) is a judgment about task capability that is not inherently evaluative” (p.185). • Perceived efficacy is therefore distinct from these other conceptions of self in that it is “specific to a particular task” (Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:4) rather than a general attribute of self.

14. Sources of perceived CTE • Bandura (1986, 1997) identified four major sources of perceived SE beliefs: mastery experience, vicarious learning, social (sometimes also referred to as verbal) persuasion and affective states. • These sources of efficacy apply equally to perceived CTE. According to Bandura (1997), “perceived personal and collective efficacy differ in the unit of agency, but in both forms efficacy beliefs have similar sources, serve similar functions, and operate through similar processes” (p.478).

15. Mastery experience refers to teachers’ confidence in their teaching ability based on past pupil academic achievement(Goddard, 2001; Adams & Forsyth, 2009:136). Past school success (of which there is a dearth in SA) builds teachers’ belief in their joint capability and a provides a shared expectation that they will continue to be successful in the future. • The reverse is also true. A collective perception of failure tends to undermine efficacy beliefs, that in turn results in a shared expectation of continued failure (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007:613) and a general state of discouragement.

16. Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy (2004) note that attributions are also involved in perceived CTE beliefs. If success is attributed to an internal locus of control, such as ability or effort, perceived CTE is enhanced. However, if success is perceived to be dependent on others or simply circumstance, perceived CTE is more likely to be reduced (p.5).

17. An important caveat is that in order to be resilient, perceived CTE needs to be developed by overcoming challenges through determined effort. There is no victory without a battle. Making success easier does not build a solid perceived CTE. At the first sign of difficulty, such CTE is susceptible to giving up. • Mastery experience has been found to be the most influential source of efficacy information (Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:5) and has come to be associated with the concept of a learning organisation (Senge, 1990).

18. Vicarious learning refers to “if he or she can do it, I can do it” experiences, where the “he” or “she” is a respected other. Vicarious experiences are derived from observations of similar and significant others on particular tasks. When teachers observe a successful role model with whom they identify, this has been found to engender confidence in teachers lacking confidence or short on previous mastery experiences, such as novice teachers (Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:5).

19. Likewise, perceived CTE can be enhanced by organisations, such as schools, observing successful schools, especially those that succeed in the face of similar contextual factors, challenges and constraints as the observer school. Dutton and Freedman (cited in Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004) refer to this process as “vicarious organizational learning” (p.5). • Schools can also learn from dissimilar peers where they share a common goal, such as academic excellence.

20. Social persuasion can take the form of encouragement or feedback from someone in an authority position or a colleague. It can also include informal discussions among teachers or reflect community opinion regarding teachers’ ability to influence learners’ academic performance. Social persuasion is especially effective when the communicator is perceived as both trustworthy and competent. This relates especially to those who hold formal leadership positions (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007:612).

21. Workshops and other professional development opportunities, as well as feedback, can inculcate in a school staff the conviction that they have the capability to set and achieve challenging goals, and inspire action: “A robust sense of group capability establishes a strong press for collective performance” (Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:6). • Furthermore, new teachers, whether novice or experienced, are enculturated into this norm of effort and success. In this way, organisation participants interdependently cultivate and perpetuate their perceived CTE. Such a norm becomes a core feature of an organisation’s culture.

22. Finally, affective states refers to individual physiological reactions, such as sweating, increased heart-rate, excitement and exhaustion arising from emotional arousal, that can enhance or reduce efficacy levels. These responses will often be associated with prior failure or success and effect teachers’ perceived CTE expectations in a particular situation (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007:612). • Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy (2004) note that an organisation’s mood is profoundly influenced by its performance in public examinations or its position on published performance ladders, for example.

23. An organisation’s climate is a strong predictor of organisation participants’ efficacy beliefs. Organisations with strong perceived efficacy in group competence can better tolerate pressure and crises and continue to function without debilitating consequences. Such organisations become increasingly resilient. • On the other hand, “cold-climate,” less efficacious, organisations are more likely to react dysfunctionally. An organisation’s affective state influences how it interprets and reacts to challenge.

24. In short, a group of teachers’ perceived collective confidence and competence is influenced by their past achievement, observation of other groups’ successes, encouragement from influential others and the development of coping mechanisms to manage their emotional climate (Goddard & Goddard, 2001:801).

25. It is important to note that the exercise of agency depends upon how individuals and groups interpret efficacy beliefs shaping information and experiences. Bandura (1997) pointed out that the influence of mastery experience on perceived efficacy does not depend entirely on the actual performance but rather on their interpretation of that performance, “changes in perceived efficacy result from cognitive processing of the diagnostic information that performances convey about capability rather than the performances per se” (p.81).  

26. In this way, perceived CTE can be conceived as “a cognition that mediates between knowledge and action” (Raudenbush, Rowan & Cheong cited in Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:6). They (Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2004) go on to note than the same is true for all four sources of perceived efficacy.

27. Finally, Bandura (1997:21) and Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2007:19) found that perceived self-efficacy beliefs are more malleable early in learning but are stable and resistant to change once established (p.21). • That perceived SE is most amenable to change and formation early on in a teacher’s career has implications for initial teacher preparation and especially for novice teachers’ induction into the teaching profession if they are to develop SE beliefs and practices that are strong, resilient and sustainable.

28. Perceived CTE and pupil socio-economic status • As mentioned in the introduction, research has shown a direct link between perceived CTE and pupil academic achievement after controlling for demographic variables such as SES, race and urbanicity (Bandura, 1993; Goddard, 2001; Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004; Goddard, LoGerfo & Hoy, 2004).

29. McCoach and Colbert (2010) found in their investigation of the factors underlying perceived CTE, that what they referred to as teacher competence factors, such as their teaching skill, are more predictive of pupil academic achievement than what they refer to as task factors, such as pupil SES and community barriers to learning (p.43). This is a significant finding and confirms earlier research (Colbert & Kulikowich, 2006) that showed that “there are many examples of students with the lowest SES and the most challenging barriers who succeed at the highest levels because of skilled and competent teachers” (McCoach & Colbert, 2010:44).

30. It also suggests that while schools can do little about their external environment or teachers’ perceptions of that environment – the task factors, they can attend to internal competence factors through staff development initiatives (p.43). Enhancing perceived CTE through staff development initiatives that enhance teacher competence can override the potentially debilitating effect of pupil SES on pupil academic achievement

31. Perceived CTE and school organisation factors • One of the main reasons for the interest in perceived collective efficacy is its link to work group effectiveness, including goal attainment, in numerous and unrelated fields. Little and Madigan (1997) found that a group’s perceived collective efficacy has “a mediating, or facilitating effect on team performance” (p.518). Perceptions of group competence are strongly and positively related to group processes and outcomes (Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:8). High perceived group capability creates expectations and behavioural norms for success that motivates group members individually and collectively to work purposefully and diligently toward their goals (Goddard, Hoy and Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:8).

32. The power of collective efficacy perceptions to influence organisation life and outcomes lies therefore in the expectations for action that are socially transmitted by collective efficacy perceptions. Sampson, Morenoff and Earls (2000) argue that collective efficacy beliefs “explain how organised capacity for action is tapped to produce results” (**). For example, an organisation with a high level of social capital, as reflected in openness, trust and collaboration, will only enjoy the potential value of that social capital when the level of perceived collective efficacy is sufficiently strong to move participants to action in pursuit of desired organisation goals. Collective efficacy beliefs directly affect a group’s resolve and persistence to pursue organisation goals.

33. Perceived collective efficacy is therefore a powerful characteristic of the normative and behavioural influence of an organisation’s culture (Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004:8). In that it is associated with task challenge, levels of shared responsibility, levels of collegiality, confidence, effort, persistence, shared thinking, morale, stress and group achievement, CTE helps explain the varying effect that school cultures have on teachers and pupils. For example, Demir (2008) found that a collaborative school culture is an antecedent of perceived CTE (p.103). • This all raises the question of how schools can take control of their circumstances to facilitate high levels of perceived CTE. The crux of this question relates to school leadership.

34. Leadership and perceived CTE • One way for school leaders to positively influence pupil academic performance is by facilitating the conditions conducive to elevating the collective efficacy beliefs of their teaching staff (Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2000:502). • Teachers from schools with high CTE beliefs are characterised by high levels of principal support (Klassen et al., 2010:466).

35. The formal leader is the key person in facilitating the supportive conditions, structural arrangements and organisation processes conducive to successful teaching (Ross & Gray, 2006:803). These include structures that encourage teachers to work together in teams, involving them in decision making and distributing leadership. Instruction-related activities, such as communicating with parents, lesson planning, positive relationships with pupils and discussing instructional issues with colleagues lead to successful interactions and teaching experiences both of which are also perceived CTE factors (Adams & Forsyth, 2009:136).

36. Goddard (2002) investigated the link between opportunities to exercise collective agency and perceived CTE. He found that where teachers have and use the opportunity to participate in and influence important school decisions, such as those concerning curriculum, learning materials, pedagogy, professional development, parent communication, pupil matters, discipline and so on, they had high levels of perceived CTE. • In contrast, where teachers’ are directed and stifled, they are charaterised by low perceived CTE. They are more likely to develop a sense of helplessness and dependency and to feel that events around them are out of their control.

37. Agential processes and practices create a norm that it’s normal to work together, to share challenges and successes and to reflect together rather than to compete against one another (Dean cited in Demir, 2008:97). Somech and Drach-Zahavy (2000) had earlier found that agential collegiality enhances perceived CTE. • In contrast, Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) found in a Norwegian study that teachers working in isolation from one another, in conflict with parents and having to organise teaching in ways they did not think were best were the strongest predictors of low perceived CTE, emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. In addition, imposed teaching strategies ie external controls were positively related to low perceived CTE, while teacher autonomy was positively related to high perceived CTE (p.621).

38. Ross et al. (2006) found perceived CTE related to the practice of transformation leadership by leaders holding formal leadership positions in the participating schools. A core characteristic of transformation leadership is that transformation leaders elevate participants’ motives beyond individual self-interest to the level of the group and organization’s interest (Bass, 1990; Leithwood, 1992). Transformation leadership is associated with teacher empowerment and stakeholder participation in school decision making, among other things (pp.799-800).

39. Ross and Gray (2006) found that principals’ transformation leadership influence on teachers’ willingness and commitment to engage in school-community, especially parent, partnerships – the strongest indirect impact on pupil achievement - occurred through perceived CTE (p.812). Efficacious teachers who believe they are an effective instructional team are more likely to take responsibility for school outcomes than to attribute school failure to uninvolved parents and are less likely to feel threatened by parents.

40. Teachers from schools with high perceived CTE beliefs are also characterised by high levels of parent support (Klassen et al., 2010:466). Transformation leadership is a strong predictor of teacher beliefs and practices ie perceived CTE (Capara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni & Steca, 2003; Koh, Steers & Terborg cited in Ross & Gray, 2006:800; Demir, 2008:103).

42. Transformation leadership contributes to perceived CTE through each of the four mechanisms identified by Bandura (1986, 1997) as sources of efficacy (mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion and affective states), each of which influences teachers’ perceptions of the school. For example, by setting achievable goals, emphasising accomplishment, giving frequent feedback, advocating an academic emphasis and linking teachers’ behaviours to pupil achievement, a principal influences perceived CTE by promoting mastery (Ross & Gray, 2006:801).

43. Leaders also contribute to perceived CTE beliefs through persuasion, that includes inspirational messages and affirmations of teacher competence by sharing decision making (Goddard, 2002). • Furthermore, they contribute to perceived CTE through staff development opportunities that include vicarious experiences, such as opportunities to observe each other’s successes and exposure to good news stories, such as schools that succeed against the odds (Christie, 2001), and through supporting teachers’ affective states by insulating them from stress.

44. Smylie (1988) found that despite challenging and stressful conditions, teachers in a high perceived CTE environment characterised by collegiality, trust, effective communication and so on, experience little stress and high levels of job satisfaction and commitment (see also Evans & Tribble cited in Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007:18; Kyriacou cited in Klassens et al., 2010:467).

45. Leadership that facilitates a school culture characterised by high perceived CTE is associated with a teacher ethos of academic optimism (Bandura, 1993; Bandura, 1997; Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004; Ross & Gray, 2006:814; Klassen et al., 2008), ambition (Ross & Gray, 2006:814), hope (Snyder, Cheavens & Sympson, 1997:115), job satisfaction (Caprara et al., 2003:823; Ross & Gray, 2006:814; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007; Evans & Tribble cited in Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007:18; Kyriacou cited in Klassens et al., 2010:467), motivation (Ross & Gray, 2006:814; Klassens et al., 2010), an enhanced sense of community (Sergiovanni, 1996), low stress levels (Smylie, 1988; Hoy & Tarter, 2004; Klassens et al., 2010), low levels of burn-out (Bandura, 1997; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007), persistence in the face of challenges (Hoy, Tarter & Hoy, 2006:443; Ross & Gray, 2006:814) and the school as a self-reflective or learning organisation (Ross & Gray, 2006:813; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007).

46. The reverse is also true. Teachers with low perceived CTE view much of their teaching environment as fraught with danger and threat, dwell on their deficient coping mechanisms and exaggerate the magnitude of potential or imagined threats. Bandura (1997) found that low perceived SE resulted in escapist modes of coping that create more strain. He also found that low mastery expectations can threaten a teacher’s identity as a teacher and elicit defensive mechanisms. • Such a pattern and combination of cognitive and emotional responses increases emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, alienation and feelings of incompetence in the face of little personal accomplishment (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007:613-614).

47. Such long-term occupational stress is the endpoint of coping unsuccessfully over time with pupil challenges, conflict with colleagues and parents, administrative demands, incompetent leadership and curriculum change. Teaching becomes a lonely existence. Many teachers leave the profession. This all has a deleterious effect on perceived CTE and pupil academic success.

48. In short, there is overwhelming evidence that principals are the lynch-pin in effective schools (Hallinger & Heck, 1996). One, perhaps the main, way they achieve this is not through heroic action but through facilitating school cultures that optimise perceived CTE.

49. Perceived CTE across cultures • “Culture shapes how efficacy beliefs are developed, the purposes to which they are put, and the sociostructural arrangement under which they are best expressed” (Bandura, 2000:77; see also Klassen et al., 2010:482). • Klassen et al. (2010) note that there is a research move to investigate the relationship between CTE and cultural values in school settings (p.465). This is in response to the current move toward culturally responsive education psychology that “grounds its understandings in the socialization practices of differing environments” (Pajares, 2007:35).

50. In the light of increasingly multicultural staffrooms, efficacy research in education settings will be deficient unless it is “understood as being bounded by a host of situated, cultural factors that must be attended to” (Klassen et al., 2010:477). • Klassen et al.’s (2010) study is among the first to investigate the influence of these cultural factors on CTE, using a cross-cultural framework (p.477).