Guidelines for Write-up stage of your long essay/research report

1. Guidelines for Write-up stage of your long essay/research report J. A. Yaro Department of Geography and Resource Development

2. OUTLINE OF YOUR REPORT • Title page • Abstract • Acknowledgments • Table of contents • List of figures and tables • Chapter one • Introduction/ • problem statement • Objectives • Justification for study • Literature review • Conceptual framework • Chapter two • Background of research area • Methodology • Chapter 3 and 4 • Results and Discussion: Two thematic headings and sub-headings to adequately answer research questions/objectives • Chapter 5 • Conclusion • Summary • General conclusions • recommendation

3. Title page • Title: A title should summarize the main idea of the paper simply and with style. It should be a concise statement of the main topic • Candidate’s ID Number • Candidate’s Name • Department • Institution

4. The abstract • An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of your dissertation • An abstract should succinctly establish the issue, the approach, key findings and important implications of the research • Balanced, precise, relevant, accessible • Example of abstract structure: • Background statement: 1-2 sentences • Objectives: 1 sentence • Method summary: short and to the point! • Results: major points • Conclusions: implication for research, practice

5. The Introduction • The introduction begins the body of the paper. • The introduction addresses the specific problem under study. • A clear introduction should: • Be short, relevant, informative, enticing • Explain the point of the study or the problem being investigated • Clearly explain the aims/objectives of long essay by describing the main findings • Explain the theoretical implications of the study and how it relates to previous work in the area • Providing a justification and a conceptual framework

6. Literature review • “If you steal from one author it’s plagiarism; if you steal from many, it’s research” (Wilson Mizner 1953) • Should have a coherent and sensible structure • No unconnected sentences and paragraphs • Present a thematic treatment of issues • Begin with a discussion of the topic in general terms, and progresses through the development of ideas on the topic, showing how individual contributions have led to partial answers and to new questions being asked.

7. Background of study area and Methods • Provide a background of the study area covering physical and socio-economic characteristics • Include a map of the district and study communities- show roads, settlements and drainage • The Method section describes in detail how the study was conducted. • These usually include descriptions of the: • Choice of research strategies and methods - and why • Participants and sampling, • The apparatus (or materials), and • The procedure: describe how survey, focus group and in-depth interviews were conducted sequentially and what variables dealt with • The problems encountered in gathering data

8. Chapters: showing results and discussion • Provide a chapter title using your first objective or a combination of two objectives • The Results for chapter theme: • It summarizes the data collected and the statistical treatment of them. • Then report the data in sufficient detail to answer research questions • Mention all relevant results, including those that run counter to the hypothesis. • Discussing the implications of the results • Introductory statement: main results? • Paragraphs corresponding to similar sections in material & methods and results • Implication for research • Implication for practice • Concluding statement

9. Rule of Three • Within each chapter, repeat yourself 3 times • Intro. We will show .. • Body. Show them .. • Concl. We have shown .. • Within thesis, repeat your contributions 3 times • Intro chapter • Main chapters • Conclusion chapter • But don’t bore reader • E.g. in introduction be brief, in conclusions be broader

10. TABLES • Descriptive: Frequencies, percentage tables, and qualitative text etc. • Inferential: contingency tables, chi squares and hypothesis test, correlation and regressions • Main objectives: • Should complement the text • Should be short and not too wide • Not too much information (i.e. not too “tight”) • Clear, easily read • Should stand alone for comprehension • Don’t forget title, caption or abbreviation explanation

11. Illustrating your report: Figures • Descriptive: Maps, bar graphs, pie charts, line graphs and qualitative data from participatory methods • Relationships: scatterplots for correlations and regressions • Main objectives: • Should complement the text • Clear, easily read and understood • Should stand alone for comprehension • Judicious use of color, grayscale • Don’t forget title, caption or abbreviation explanation

12. Discussion • This can follow each section of the results or as second part of each chapter. DON’T CREATE A CHAPTER CALLED DISCUSSION. MIX BOTH. • Evaluate and interpret the implications of the results, especially with respect to your original propositions or hypothesis. • Examine, interpret, and qualify the results, as well as to draw inferences from them. • Emphasize any theoretical consequences of the results and the validity of your conclusions. • Open the discussion with a clear statement of the support or non-support for your original hypothesis. • Similarities and differences between your results and the work of others should clarify and confirm your conclusions. • Do not reformulate and repeat points already made; each new statement should contribute to your position and to the reader's understanding of the problem.

13. Conclusions • In general, be guided by the following questions: • Provide a summary of findings or discussions • What have I contributed here? • How has my study helped to resolve the original problem? • What conclusions and theoretical implications can I draw from my study? • summarises the whole research • answers the research questions • provides conclusions to the research problem • offers recommendations to enhance theory and improve practice

14. References • All citations in the Long essay must appear in the reference list, and all references must be cited in the text. • Important points: • Follow departmental guidelines for reference format!!! • Verify that all in-text citations have matching references! • Use reference management software: RefWorks, Endnote, Reference Manager

15. APPENDICES • Data in the form of tables that were referred to but not inserted in the main essay • Research instruments – interview schedules and questionnaires • Ethical clearance if any • Any other relevant information • DON’T ADD INTRODUCTORY LETTERS FOR FIELDWORK

16. What to expect from your advisor? • Intellectual support • Quality assurance • What standard a thesis should reach • Indication of when to stop • Emotional support • Encouragement • Constructive atmosphere

17. Presentation of results Have the hypotheses in fact been tested? Are the results shown to support the hypothesis? Is the data properly analysed? Are the results presented clearly? Are patterns identified and summarized? Discussion and Conclusions Are the limits of the research identified? Are the main points to emerge identified? Are links made to the literature? Is there theoretical development? Are the speculations well grounded? What are examiners looking for?