A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

1. A Topical Approach toLIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT Chapter Twelve: Gender and Sexuality John W. Santrock

2. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Gender: characteristics of being female or male • Gender role: set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think • Gender typing: process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender • Sex:designates the biological aspects of being female or male

3. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Chromosomes: 23rd pair with X and Y • Hormones • Estrogens • Influences development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle • Androgens • Testosterone promotes development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics

4. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development • Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) • Androgen-insensitive males • Pelvic field defect • Failed sex reassignment

5. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Evolutionary psychology view • Differing roles in reproduction placed different pressures on males and females • Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors • Males — competition, violence, risk-taking • Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate

6. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Social influences • Differences due to social experiences • Social role theory: gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women • Psychoanalytic theory of gender: claims child identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6 • Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier (even in absence of same-sex parent)

7. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Social influences • Differences due to social experiences • Social cognitive theory of gender — gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate behaviors • Mothers’ socialization strategies • Fathers’ socialization strategies • Exposure to media, peers, other adults in culture

8. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Cognitive influences • Gender schema theory • Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate • Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy • Schema: cognitive structure • Gender schema: organizes world in terms of female and male

9. Cognitive Influences Gender schema theory Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy Schema: cognitive structure Gender schema: organizes world in terms of male and female

10. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Gender stereotyping • General impressions and beliefs about females and males • Traditional masculinity and femininity • Males — instrumental traits • Females — expressive traits • Roles and traits — unequal social status, power • Developmentally • Gender stereotyping present in 2-year-olds • Stereotyping varies with culture

11. Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations Fig. 12.2

12. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Gender similarities and differences • Physical differences • Females • have longer life expectancy • less likely to develop mental or physical disorders • Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels • Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure

13. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Gender similarities and differences • Physical differences • Female brains are smaller, have more folds • Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men • Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males • Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females

14. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Cognitive similarities and differences • Some claim males better at math and visuospatial skills and females better at verbal skills • Others claim no differences or exaggerated • National standardized tests • Boys slightly better at math and science • Girls better at reading and writing • Overall, girls superior students to boys • More males placed in special/remedial classes

15. Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females Fig. 12.3

16. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Aggression • Males more physically aggressive in all cultures • Females may be verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men • Self-Regulation • Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems • Controversies over psychological differences

17. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Meta-analysis • Gender differences: small to nonexistent • Physical aggression differences were moderate • Largest difference in motor skills favoring males • Males more sexually active than females

18. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Gender in context • Gender varies across contexts • Males more likely to help in perceived danger • Females more likely to volunteer to help with child • Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys • Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression • Cultural backgrounds influence socialization

19. Gender Development Through the Life Span • Childhood • Children form many ideas about what the sexes are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age • Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization (e.g., “boy code”) • Boys could benefit from more socialization to express emotions and better regulation of aggression • Children show clear preference for same-sex peers

20. Gender Development Through the Life Span • Adolescence • Transition point; changes in puberty • Gender-intensification hypothesis • Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence • Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence • Mixed messages and special problems

21. Gender Development Through the Life Span • Adulthood and aging • Gender and communication • Rapport talk • Language of conversation, a way to establish connections and negotiate relationships • Preferred by women • Report talk • Language designed to give information, including public speaking • Preferred by men

22. Gender Development Through the Life Span • Adulthood and aging • Women’s gender development • Women often try to actively participate in others’ development • Emotionally • Intellectually • Socially • Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and self-determination in relationships

23. Gender Development Through the Life Span • Adulthood and aging • Men’s gender development • Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent • Can cause role-strain in • Health (may be considered: hazardous) • Male-female relationships (affected by traditions) • Male-male relationships (fathers have impact)

24. Gender Development Through the Life Span • Gender and aging • Decreased masculinity in most men; decreased femininity may occur in some women • Impacted by cohort effects • Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and sexism • Older ethnic minority women face triple jeopardy: ageism, sexism, racism

25. Exploring Sexuality • Biological and cultural factors • Biological • Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones • Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans that it is difficult to specify hormonal effects • Sexual motivation also influenced by cultural factors

26. Exploring Sexuality • Biological and cultural factors • Cultural factors • Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial • Ines Beag: small island off coast of Ireland • Extreme sexually repressive conditions • Mangaian culture in South Pacific • Sexual behavior encouraged very open

27. Exploring Sexuality • Biological and cultural factors • Cultural factors • Sexual scripts— stereotyped expectancy patterns for how people should behave sexually • Traditional religious script— sex is accepted only within marriage; sex is for reproduction and sometimes affection • Romantic script — sex synonymous with love

28. Noncohabiting Cohabiting (married) Men Men 1% Never A few times a year A few times a month Women Women 3% 2 to 3 times a week 4 or more times a week Sex in America Survey Fig. 12.4

29. Exploring Sexuality • Sexual orientation • Heterosexual attitudes and behavior • Different categories for frequency of sex • Married couples have sex more often • Most couples enjoy traditional sex • Adultery is exception, not the rule • Men think about sex more than women • Most lead conservative sexual lives

30. Exploring Sexuality • Sexual orientation • Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males • Bisexual: sexually attracted to both sexes • Research on biological and hormonal differences on sexual preferences unclear • Anatomically — area of hypothalamus governing sexual behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males • Sexual orientation: most likely results from mix of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, environmental factors

31. Exploring Sexuality • Sexual orientation • Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males • Gender differences appearing in heterosexual relationships also occurs in homosexual relationships • Importance of trust, affection, sharing of friends • Sexual attraction more important to men • Lesbians have fewer partners, have sex less often • More equal in labor and power than traditional couple

32. Exploring Sexuality • Sexual orientation • Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males • Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in dominant culture, with bicultural identity • Special concern: • Hate crimes • Stigma-related experiences; verbal harassment

33. Exploring Sexuality • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) • Gonorrhea • Syphilis • Chlamydia • Genital Herpes • HPV — causes genital warts • HIV and AIDS — sexually-transmitted disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

34. Exploring Sexuality • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) • AIDS has impact worldwide • Sub-Saharan Africa has epidemic proportions • Little use of condoms • High infection rate for adolescents • Orphans left with o caregivers • 12 million orphans in 2006 • In United States — prevention targeted at specific groups • Drug users, STD infected persons, young gay males

35. Exploring Sexuality • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) • Protecting against STIs • Education and development of effective drug treatments • Only safe behavior is abstinence • Know your and your partner’s risk status • Obtain screening tests for STIs • Have protected, not unprotected, sex • Don’t have sex with multiple partners

36. Exploring Sexuality • Forcible Sexual Behavior • Rape • Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal definitions vary by state • Victims reluctant to report rape; stats vary • Date or acquaintance rape: coercive sex activity with acquaintance; concern for college students • Rape of male victims is rare, does occur • Constitutes almost 5% of all rapes

37. 50 40 30 Percentage of sample 20 10 0 Classmate Friend Boyfriend/ ex-boyfriend Acquaintance Other Offender Rape Victim-Offender Relationships Fig. 12.5

38. Exploring Sexuality • Sexual Harassment • Ranging from remarks to physical contact, blatant propositions to sexual assaults • Most victims are women in educational and workplace settings • Has serious psychological effects on victim • One person’s manifestation of power over another

39. Sexuality through the Life Span • Child sexuality • Majority of children engage in some sex play • Usually with friends or siblings • Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals • Most motivated by curiosity • Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years

40. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity • Most have insatiable curiosity about sex • Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion • Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality

41. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Developing a Sexual Identity • Multifaceted, lengthy challenge to manage new feelings, develop identity and self-regulation • Great variety in orientations, interest levels, anxiety levels, activity, and reasons for choices in activity • Gay or lesbian identity: gradual coming-out • Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not continue into adulthood

42. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors • First initiation experience varies by country, culture • Cross-culturally: majority of females and males have first experience by age 17

43. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors • U.S. study: • African American and inner-city youth most active • Asian American youth most restricted • Males more active than females • Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to be safer and not really “having sex”

44. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Personal risk factors • Emotionally unprepared for sexual experiences • Other risky behaviors linked to early sexual activity • Drug use, delinquency, school-related problems • Risky behavior patterns can continue as disorders in emerging adulthood • Contextual factors • SES, parenting styles, peer factors • Having sibling engaging in early activity

45. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Cognitive factors are linked to sexual risk taking • Contraceptive use can reduce risks; increased use of contraceptives by adolescents • Age affects choice and consistency of use • 3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually • U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world • Negative consequences for teen mother and child

46. 80 60 40 Births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old 20 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy Fig. 12.7

47. Sexuality through the Life Span • Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy • Health risks for mother and child • Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness • Young mothers more likely to • Drop out of school; were low achievers in school • Have history of conduct problems • Come from low-income backgrounds • Live in poverty

48. Sexuality through the Life Span • Emerging adulthood • Patterns of heterosexual behavior • Time frame for sexual activity and singlehood • Males have more casual sex; females more selective • Most limit sex partners to one or two persons annually • Casual sex more common in “hooking up” • The earlier the age of first sex, the more sexual activity in emerging adulthood • Religious adults have fewer sexual partners • Alcohol use loosens inhibitions, decreases caution

49. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality and aging • Middle adulthood • Climacteric: midlife transition, fertility ends/declines • Women: Menopause late forties or early fifties; • Perimenopausal is transitional time • Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): risks involved • Men: less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile dysfunction (Viagra and similar drugs have appeared) • Ability to function slows little, frequency drops in old age

50. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality and aging • Late adulthood • Aging does have some effects on sexual performance • Men experience more changes than women • Orgasm less frequent • More direct stimulation needed • Erection problems more likely after 65 • Sexuality can be lifelong; most older adults report being satisfied