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Introduction • Distinguishing between the terms sex and gender • Reviewing the theoretical perspectives on why one might expect differences • Examining empirical research evidence about the underlying psychology of gender in negotiation ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Defining Sex and Gender • Sex: • Refers to the biological categories of male and female • “the property or quality by which organisms are classified as female or male on the basis of their reproductive organs and functions” • Gender: • Refers to cultural and psychological markers of the sexes – the aspects of role or identity that differentiate men from women in a given culture or society ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Research on Gender Differences in Negotiation There may be no simple answer to the question of how gender influences negotiation, but recent studies are shedding light on differences that do exist and on why it can be hard to find them in broad-brush comparisons of male and female negotiators. ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Male and Female Negotiators: Theoretical Perspectives Several important factors affect how women and men approach negotiations: • Relational view of others • Embedded view of agency • Beliefs about ability and worth • Control through empowerment • Problem solving through dialogue • Perceptions and stereotypes ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Male and Female Negotiators: Theoretical Perspectives • Relational view of others • Women: place greater emphasis on interaction goals (the interpersonal aspects of the negotiations) • Men: are driven more by task-specific goals • Embedded view of agency • Women: see negotiation as a behavior that occurs within relationships without large divisions marking when it begins and ends • Men: tend to demarcate negotiating from other behaviors that occur and signal the beginning and end of the negotiations behaviorally. ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Male and Female Negotiators: Theoretical Perspectives • Beliefs about ability and worth • Women: are more likely to see their worth determined by what the employer will pay • Men: expect to earn more than women over the course of their career • Control through empowerment • Women: are more likely to see seek empowerment, “interaction among all parties in the relationship” • Men: use power to achieve their own goals or to force the other party to capitulate ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Male and Female Negotiators: Theoretical Perspectives • Problem solving through dialogue • Women: seek to engage, listen and contribute • Men: convince the other party their position is the correct one and support various tactics and ploys that are used to win points during the discussion • Perceptions and stereotypes • Negative stereotypes about female bargainers shape expectations and behaviors • Men have an advantage as a “dominant cultural stereotype” ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Empirical Findings on Gender Differences in Negotiations • Men and women conceive of negotiations differently • Relationship versus task orientation • Competition versus collaboration • Is the situation perceived as a negotiation opportunity? • Men and women communicate differently • Men and women are treated differently ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Empirical Findings on Gender Differences in Negotiations • Similar tactics have different effects when used by men versus women • Exchange tactics: studies suggest that not only do men and women receive different outcomes during salary negotiations but that the same tactic may have opposite effects on salary negotiation outcomes • Aggressive tactics: male and female candidates were less likely to be hired when they bargained aggressively. Females were 3.5 times less likely to be hired when aggressive ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Gender Stereotypes affect Negotiator Performance • Stereotypes undermine the performance of female negotiators • The negative effect of stereotypes about gender differences can be overcome • The activated stereotype may matter more than the actual gender of the negotiator ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Overcoming the Disadvantage of Gender Differences • Motivational interventions • Emphasize the mutual dependence of both parties in the negotiation relationship • Cognitive interventions • Focus on things that negotiators have in common that transcend gender, such as common goals or identities • Situational interventions • Alter the social roles that women assume in a negotiation to reduce the extent to which women feel constrained to conform to gender role ©2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

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