Chapter 8, Section 2.

1. Chapter 8, Section 2. How did exciting new ideas affect Europe during the Enlightenment?

2. Isaac Newton believed that the physical world and everything in it was operating according to natural laws that could be uncovered through systematic investigation. Intellectuals hoped that by using the scientific method, they could make progress toward a better society than the one they had inherited.

3. The system of checks and balances through separation of powers was Montesquieu's most lasting contribution to political thought.

4. Deism was an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law. To Voltaire, the universe was like a clock. God, the clockmaker, had created it, set it in motion, and allowed it to run without his interference and according to its own natural laws.

5. Laissez-faire meant that if individuals were free to pursue their own economic self-interest, all society would benefit. In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith outlined three roles for government (defense, justice, and public works), but should not interfere with economics.

6. Through a social contract, an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will. Individuals who wish instead to follow their own self-interests must be forced to abide by the general will. Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed in a social contract

7. Mary Wollstonecraft: argued that the Enlightenment was based on an ideal of reason in all human beings Because women have reason, they are entitled to the same rights as men. Women, Wollstonecraft declared, should have equal rights in education, as well as in economic and political life.

8. The growth of both publishing and the reading public during the eighteenth century was noticeable. Many books were directed at the new reading public of the middle classes, which included women and urban artisans. Realistic social themes became popular.

9. Many of its articles attacked religious superstition and supported religious toleration. Others called for social, legal, and political reforms. Denis Diderot: most famous contribution to the Enlightenment was the Encyclopedia.

10. Salons: the elegant urban drawing rooms where, in the eighteenth century, writers, artists, aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middle-class people gathered to discuss the ideas of the philosophers.