Presented By Peter Matthews

1. Lest We Remember: Cold Boot Attacks on Encryption KeysBy J. Alex Halderman, Seth D. Schoen, Nadia Heninger, William Clarkson, William Paul, Joseph A. Calandrino, Ariel J. Feldman, Jacob Appelbaum, and Edward W. FeltenAppears in the Proceedings of the 17th USENIX Security Symposium (Sec ‘08), San Jose, CA, July 2008 Presented By Peter Matthews

2. Outline • Disk Encryption • The Attack in a Nutshell • Memory Remanence • Experimental Results • Cold Boot Attack • Physical • Software • Results • Countermeasures

3. Introduction to Disk Encryption • Disk encryption is one solution to the growing need to protect access to sensitive data • Allows transparent read/write access to the hard drive while protecting the information stored on it via high-strength encryption • Typically requires initial authentication before granting access • Password • Biometrics such as fingerprint scanners • USB dongle • Example: Using disk encryption with a laptop HD to prevent data theft if the machine is lost or stolen

4. Disk Encryption - Writing

5. Disk Encryption - Reading

6. Popular Disk Encryption Software

7. Disk Encryption • 20% of companies reported encrypting laptops in 2007 • Source: Ponemon Institute: 2008 Annual Study: U.S. Enterprise Encryption Trends • Software attempts to minimize impact on user experience • To ensure high performance, the keys are stored persistently in memory

8. Attack in a Nutshell • Paper presents attacks that can defeat these disk encryption packages if an attacker gains physical access to the computer • Take only a few minutes • Require no expensive/exotic equipment • Most need computer to be on or in sleep mode • Some even work if computer is off • Rather than trying to break encryption, attack uses a little known property of RAM and looks for the stored key in memory after a forced reboot • Bottom line: If computer is stolen or is left unattended for short time, attacker can find the disk encryption keys and access the protected data

9. Memory Remanence • What happens to data stored in volatile memory (RAM) when the computer’s power is cut? • Widespread belief: Data is erased • In fact, data fades away gradually over a period of seconds to minutes • The following video demonstrates this:

10. Video Source: http://citp.princeton.edu.nyud.net/memory-content/video/mona-5fps-half-title.wmv

11. Memory Remanence • A DRAM cell is essentially a capacitor • Stores one bit by charging or not charging one of the conductors • Other conductor hard-wired to power or ground depending on address • Over time the charge will leak out of the capacitor • Cell returns to “ground state” – 1 or 0 depending on whether hard wired to power or ground • To prevent this, cell must be refreshed (re-charged) on a set schedule

12. Memory Remanence • Experiments show that the pattern to which the memory cells fade and the order in which they do so are highly predictable • Cause: manufacturing variations • They also show that temperature has a very significant effect on the rate at which cells lose their state

16. Effect of Cooling on Error Rates

17. Even Colder… • Liquid nitrogen boils at -196 °C • Stored data in these memory modules, cooled them, removed them from the computer, and placed them in a container of liquid nitrogen for an hour • After returning them to the computer, found practically no information had been lost

18. Imaging Residual Memory • Warm-boot, configure BIOS to start tool • No memory decay, but gives software chance to wipe sensitive data • Disconnect and reconnect power (cold-boot) • Little to no memory decay • Transferring DRAM modules • Cool DRAM modules with “canned air”, physically remove from machine, and place into other machine • May be able to avoid BIOS overwriting portion of memory if placed in secondary slot • Little to no memory decay

19. Imaging Residual Memory • When the system boots, memory controller begins refreshing the memory cells and decay halts • Booting necessarily overwrites some memory • Minimize: Use tiny special-purpose program to dump contents to external medium or network address • Start tool via: • Network boot • Intel Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) • Intel-Mac Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) • USB flash drives / external hard drives • iPod • Authors wrote software for and successfully used all of these

20. Key Reconstruction • Even a small amount of error complicates the process of extracting correct cryptographic keys • Naïve approach: Brute-force search over keys with a low Hamming distance from the one in memory • -- The number of positions for which the corresponding bits are different • This quickly becomes computationally infeasible • Most encryption programs speed up computation by storing pre-computed data • For block ciphers, this is a “key schedule” with subkeys for each round of the algorithm

21. Key Reconstruction • This pre-computed data contains much more structure than the key itself • Can use this structure to efficiently reconstruct original key in presence of errors • Structure allows self-contained key validity proving • No need to test decryption of ciphertext • May be thought of as an error correcting code for the key

22. Example – Reconstructing DES Keys • DES – 56 bit key • DES key schedule algorithm produces 16 subkeys • Each a permutation of a 48-bit subset of bits from the original 56 bit key • Every bit from the original key is repeated in about 14 of the 16 subkeys • Use the values of these 14 copies of a bit to make a decision about the most likely value of that bit • Even with a 25% error, the probability that the key can be decoded without brute force search is more than 98% • Trivially extends to 3DES

23. Finding Keys in Memory • Test every sequence of bytes to see if it decrypts known ciphertext • Too expensive, only works if memory portion is perfectly accurate • Look for the key schedule rather than the key itself • Valid key schedule has certain combinatorial properties • Iterate through each appropriately sized block of memory, treating as key schedule • For each key schedule word calculate its Hamming distance from the key schedule word that should be generated from the surrounding words

24. Results • Defeated • Microsoft Bitlocker (Windows) • Apple FileVault (OSX) • TrueCrypt (Win/Mac/Linux) • dm-crypt (built-in Linux disk encryption system) • Loop-AES (Linux)

25. Countermeasures • Scrubbing memory • Proactively clear memory when keys no longer in use • Force clear memory at boot time via BIOS • Restrict booting from network / removable media • Still possible to replace /add hard drives • Suspending a system safely • Require password to reawaken machine, encrypt memory with key derived from password • Avoid pre-computation • High performance overhead

26. Countermeasures Continued… • Store pre-computed key components in a difficult to reconstruct format • Hashing can make it more sensitive to bit errors • Physical defenses • Lock/Epoxy DRAM modules in place • Overwrite memory if case opened or low temperature detected • Hardware defenses • Provide safe place to store keys • Move encryption to disk controller

27. Conclusion – Paper Strengths • Uses a little known property to craft a novel and unforeseen attack • Demonstrated to work against a number of products in wide use • Extends to further uses: were able to find the OSX user login password stored in memory • Well written and presented • Excellent companion website • Documented source code, Pictures, Video, etc.

28. Conclusion – Paper Weaknesses • Certain probabilistic results seem to imply that the authors already know which blocks’ ground states are 0 / 1 • Is this realistic in an attack scenario?

29. Future Work • What else is stored in “untouchable” memory? • Authors found OSX user login password stored multiple place in local memory • Possible to use memory addresses that every BIOS has to overwrite due to X86 legacy? • Production of effective hardware defenses • A precise quantification of remanence effects on RAM of various types and from various makers

30. Questions?