RHETORICAL MODES

1. RHETORICAL MODES

2. DEFINITION • Purpose: • To set the boundaries, to delineate, to limit • To determine the nature of • To give the distinguishing characteristics of • Examples of definition questions: • What is the law of the conservation of mass and energy? • Explain loose connective tissue. • What is the meaning of the term “value”? • Define a sonnet. • Strategies for Organization assignment: • Define the purpose of the organization: why does it exist, whom does it serve, how does it serve its clients?

3. Definition Example: A sonnet is a poem of Italian origin with rigid requirements regarding length, structure, and organization. All sonnets have fourteen lines written in iambic pentameter. The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet is divided into an octave rhyming abbaabba and a sestet rhyming cdecde, cdcdcd or cdccdc. The English or Shakespearean sonnet is divided into three quatrains rhyming abab cdcd efef with a concluding heroic couplet.

4. DESCRIPTION • Purpose: • To give a detailed account of • To picture in words • To trace the outline of • Examples of description questions: • Describe the anti-heroic qualities of Holden Caulfield in A Catcher in the Rye. • What is the layout of the brain? • Portray the situation of the Roman government at the time of Julius Caesar’s assassination. • What is the layout of the brain? What does this layout have to do with evolution? • Strategies for Organization assignment: • Describe the locale of the organization: the building, the offices, the grounds, etc.

5. Description Example: Removed from its skull and weighed, a human brain tops the scale at approximately three pounds. Its appearance is roughly walnut-like: its color is pinkish grey on the outside, yellowish-white within. Like all organs, the brain has evolved over millions of years. Its structure reflects all the stages through which it has passed. The brain evolved from the inside out. Deep inside is the oldest part, the brainstem, which conducts the basic biological functions, including the rhythms of life -- heartbeat and respiration. According to a provocative insight by Paul MacLean, the higher functions of the brain evolved in three successive stages. Capping the brainstem is the R-complex, the seat of aggression, ritual , territoriality, and social hierarchy, which evolved hundreds of millions of years ago in our reptilian ancestors. Deep inside our skulls there is something like the brain of a crocodile. Surrounding the R-complex is the limbic system or mammalian brain, which evolved tens of millions years ago in ancestors who were mammals but not primates. It is a major source of our moods and emotions, of our concern and care for the young. And finally, on the outside, is the cerebral cortex, which evolved millions of years ago in our primate ancestors. The cerebral cortex, where matter is transformed into consciousness, is the point of embarkation for all our cosmic voyages. Comprising more than two-thirds of the brain mass, it is here that we have ideas, here that we read and write, here that we do our mathematics and compose music. The cortex is the distinction of our species.

6. EXAMPLE • Purpose: • To select one thing to show the nature of the rest • To describe a typical instance • Examples of example questions: • Give an example of the use of first-person narrators in three of the stories we have read, and explain what the effect of the first-person narration is on each story. • Illustrate how television advertisements often mislead the public. • Discuss some of the disadvantages of advancing technology. • Strategies for Organization assignment • Give an example of what function the organization performs in the community.

7. Example Example: Americans are proud of their technological advances, but technology often comes at a price. Consider the cell phone, for example. While it allows us to stay in touch at all times, it also demands our attention at inappropriate times and may even cause a dangerous situation. A phone conversation while driving at seventy-five miles is not conducive to attention to the road. The information highway is another example. It offers computer users almost limitless access to a staggering amount of information. However, users are so glued to their computer screens day and night that they no longer have a life away from their pcs. Once on the information highway, people become so obsessed that they do not take the exit ramp. Certainly technological advances make like easier, but they are not without their problems.

8. COMPARISON/CONTRAST • Purpose: • To point out similarities • To point out differences • Examples of comparison/contrast questions: • Compare the visual imagery used in Emily Dickinson’s “A Narrow Fellow in the Grass” with that in D.H. Lawrence’s “The Snake.” • Explain the differences in pecuniary income and psychic income. • Contrast Christianity with Judaism • Discuss the strategies of Spanish colonizers in contrast with those of English colonizers in the North America. • Strategies for Organization assignment: • Compare and contrast your organization with another organization that performs a similar function

9. Comparison/Contrast ExampleCompare the value of the Zeng with the Xanadu • Block Form After having studied all of the facts, decided that in spite of its higher initial cost, the Xanadu is the better car to buy than its competitor, the Zeng. The Zeng is large and powerful -- 390 horses to pull it along. It sells for somewhere around $18,500, and its maintenance cost averages about $450 a year. However, it has a very low resale value. A year old Zeng will bring in more than $12,000. Apparently no one wants a used Zeng.On the other hand, the Xanadu seems a far superior buy. It is about the same size as the Zeng, but it has a 440 horsepower motor. New it sells for just under $20,000, but its yearly maintenance averages less than $200. And in regard to resale, the Xanadu depreciates only about $2000 a year. A year-old Xanadu is worth more than a two-year old Zeng. So it is really easy to see how better a buy the Xanadu is.

10. Comparison/Contrast Example Compare the value of the Zeng with the Xanadu • Point-by-Point Form After having studied all of the facts, decided that in spite of its higher initial cost, the Xanadu is the better car to buy than its competitor, the Zeng. Both cars are the same size -- barely room for two people. They have about the same power plants, although the Xanadu is fifty horses larger.A major difference is is initial cost. The Zeng costs $18,500, and the Zanadu hits its buyer for about $20,000.However, the Zeng’s maintenance cost averages about $450 a year whilethe Xanadu’s yearly maintenance averages less than $200.The real difference is in resale value. Apparently no one wants a used Zeng, but everyone seems to want a Xanadu no matter how old it is.

11. PROCESS ANALYSIS • Purpose: • To explain how a procedure is carried out • To follow the system of operations in the production of something • To follow an action from beginning to end • Examples of process analysis questions: • How is a lipid formed? • Explain how the heart beats. • What are the stages of alcoholism? • How does communication take place? • Strategies for Organization assignment: • Explain how the organization achieves one of its goals. • Follow the process from the beginning to the end • BE SURE TO INCLUDE EACH STEP

12. Process Analysis Example: Communication starts with the source who encodes (puts thoughts and ideas into a symbol system). Once an idea is encoded, it becomes a message. This message is then transmitted to a receiver who decodes it (translates the message code into signals so the brain can process). Next, the receiver interprets the message; that is, he assigns meaning to the message that was encoded. In doing so, the receiver often adds to the message to go beyond what was said. The final step is feedback, which is a response from the receiver as to how the message has been acknowledged.

13. CLASSIFICATION • Purpose: • To categorize • To arrange according to class or type • Examples of classification questions: • List three types of specific neurotic reaction patterns and describe each briefly. • What are the four forms of a protein? • List three types of defense mechanisms and describe each briefly. • According to transactional analysis, what are the types of psychological positions we can hold and how do these positions determine how we relate to others? • Strategies for Organization assignment: • Divide the personnel into categories • Base the categories on the tasks the personnel perform

14. Classification Example: According to transactional analysis, we all assume various psychological positions which determine how we relate to others. There are four types of psychological positions which we may hold. Type One is called “I’m OK, you’re OK.” People of this type feel that they are okay and that others are okay. These people tend to be very competent and have constructive relationships with other people. They also get along with other people because they have a high esteem for themselves and others. Type Two is called “I’m OK, you’re not OK.” People, who feel that they are okay but others are not, act superior, aloof, arrogant, and above others with whom they have relationships. They are not good co-workers or bosses. Type Three is named “I’m not OK, you’re OK.” People, who feel that they are not okay but that others are okay, often think they are inferior and frequently manifest depressed outlooks toward life and toward those with whom they transact. These people try to withdraw from others, tend to be loners, and feel discouraged in their abilities to cope with people. They are pathetic and are apt to be disappointments to work with or for. The final category, Type Four, is called “I’m not OK, you’re not OK either.” People, who feel that they are not okay and that no one else is either, tend to have a hopeless or futile outlook on life. These people really feel that they cannot get anywhere with other people, and because of this, they give up and have quite impoverished relationships with others. They are usually going nowhere and want others to go nowhere too.

15. CAUSAL ANALYSIS • Purpose: • to describe how a result or consequence came about • to show the relationship between a cause and an effect • Examples of causal analysis questions: • What are causes of World War I? • Why does one age? • What are some effects of watching violence on television? • How can eating too little fat cause one to gain weight? • Strategies for Organization assignment: • Describe an effect the organization has had on an individual, a particular group, or the community, • Be specific as to how the organization's efforts created the effect

16. Causal Analysis Example: For three reasons, eating too little fat is probably a major cause of overweight. First, many seemingly fat persons are only waterlogged; an adequate diet including salad dressing daily causes them to lose pounds. Second, it has been proven by what is know as the respiratory quotient that when the essential fatty acids are insufficiently supplied, the body changes sugar to fat much more rapidly than is normal; it would seem as the body were speedily trying to produce the missing nutrients. The quick change makes the blood sugar plunge downward, causing one to feel starved; the chances are that one overeats and gains weight. Third, fats are more satisfying than are other foods. If one foregoes eating one hundred calories of fat per meal, one usually becomes so hungry that he eats five hundred calories of starch or sugar simply because he cannot resist them: unwanted pounds creep on.