Logical Fallacies

1. Logical Fallacies Dr. Alan Haffa Based on Gary Goshgarian and Kathleen Krueger in An Argument Rhetoric and Reader

2. What Are Logical Fallacies? • Fallere: to deceive • Flaw in the logic of an argument • Unintentional or intentional

3. Ad Hominem • Attack against ‘the man’ • Attacks the character or person of the person making the opposing argument rather than the argument itself • Shows lack of objectivity

4. Ad Misericordiam • Appeal to Pity • Attempts to persuade by making an emotional argument • Example: Local Humane Society seeks money for new shelter; shows a picture and tells you that your donation could save this dog from being euthanized due to overcrowding • Appeal to a court to spare an eighty year old man from the death penalty based upon his age and frail health

5. Ad Populum Argument • An argument aimed at appealing to the prejudices and emotions of the masses • A parent who complains in an editorial about their child being taught by a foreign teacher, appeals to the common prejudice against immigrants and foreigners • Just because a majority believe something is true doesn’t make it logical or valid

6. Bandwagon Appeal • If you don’t want to be left out, you better get on the bandwagon and do and think the same things • Similar to Ad Populum but emphasis is on the desire to persaude the undecided or non-conformist to ‘join the group’ • “Smart Shoppers shop at Sears” • “Everyone knows that Global Warming is a Threat”; “Everyone knows that Global Warming is a liberal conspiracy”

7. Begging the Question • Similar to circular reasoning, begging the question presents something as true which in fact needs to be demonstrated. • “That foolish law should be repealed” • “She is compassionate because she is a woman”

8. Circular Reasoning • The conclusion of a deductive argument is hidden in the premise • The argument goes in a circle • 1) People who are happy with their work are cheerful because they enjoy what they’re doing • Smoking is bad for you because it ruins your health.

9. Dicto Simpliciter • From a general truth to a specific case, regardless of the appropriateness • “Simply spoken” • Exploits an overly simplistic “rule of thumb” • 1) Men are stronger than women; Soldiers should be strong; Women should not serve in combat.

10. False Analogy • Analogy compares two things • False analogy is when the two things compared really are not similar in the way being compared • Sadaam Hussein is like Hitler • Therefore, the Gulf War is justified just as WW II was justified

11. Faulty Use of Authority • When an expert in one area is used as an authority outside of their area of expertise • Just because someone is a Ph.D. or M.D. doesn’t mean that they are an expert on the particular topic • Celebrity Endorsements

12. Hasty Generalizations • Arriving at a conclusion based on too little evidence • Students in America are learning less than in the past because their SAT scores are lower • California students are less well educated than other states because they are 46th in per student funding

13. Non Sequitur • “Does not follow” • A conclusion that doesn’t follow from the premise • “She’s so pretty; she must not be smart.” • “Candidate Jones will be a great Senator because she’s been married for twenty years.”

14. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc • “After this, therefore because of this” • Establishes a questionable cause-and-effect relationship between events • Because event Y follows event X, event X causes event Y • Black folks do less well on standardized tests; therefore the public school system must be racist • There are more latch-key children since the Women’s Movement; Feminism and Women’s Liberation is directly responsible for the rise of latch-key children

15. Red Herring • Evidence that is used incorrectly and intentionally to distract the audience from the true issues • In Detective Stories the Red Herring is the “false suspect” • A coach accused of using money improperly defends himself by pointing out the teams winning record • The problem with education is a “lack of accountability” • ‘There will be death panels who will decide if Seniors can live or die’

16. Slippery Slope • Like a muddy hill, if we go down this slope we will fall • In other words, if we allow one thing a whole slew of other, negative events will occur as a result • It is fallacious when there is not sufficient evidence offered to show that Event X will necessarily lead to Events Y and Z • If we pass this health care bill eventually the government will take over the decision-making from patients and doctors • Gay marriage will lead to polygamy and incest

17. Stacking the Deck • Only offering evidence that supports the premise, while disregarding contrary evidence • “Data beautification” • A meat manufacturer advertises that its all-beef hot dogs “now contain 10 percent less fat,” but leaves out the fact that it still contains 30 % fat • If you leave out obvious evidence your reader knows about you lose credibility

18. Straw Man • A straw man is an easy target • In rhetoric, it refers to a strategy of refutation that offers a distorted view of the opponent’s position and then knocking it down. • The speaker claims the opponent’s argument is false because of an error in a smaller, inessential part of the opponent’s argument • “This bill is Socialist and would turn America’s Health Care system over to a government bureaucracy.”

19. Either/Or Fallacy • Writer argues that we have two choices: we MUST do either THIS or THAT • Typically one of the two options is clearly non-desirable or bad; hence, the “conclusion” that we must do the alternative • The current bill is unacceptable; we must start over from scratch • Or, we have come too far not to pass this bill; starting over would mean failure

20. Summary • If you can identify a fallacy in your opponent’s argument, point it out and show how it is false • Be sure to refute all of your opponent’s points and then you may offer up points of your own.