Lecture # 3

2. Lecture # 3 Geological Cycle Rock Formation and Types of Rocks Instructor: Dr. Attaullah Shah Department of Civil Engineering City University of Science and IT Peshawar

3. Outlines of the Presentation • Geological Cycle: Rock formation • Types of Rocks • Major rocks and their use in Civil Engineering

4. The Geological Cycle: Rock formation Geological cycle includes many processes acting simultaneously. The most important of these begin with molten magma from within the earth forming into rock, then continue with rocks being broken down into soil, and that soil being converted back into rock. It is sometimes called as Rock cycle as well. The rock cycle is a fundamental concept in geology that describes the dynamic transitions through geologic time among the three main rock types: • Sedimentary, • Metamorphic, and • Igneous. 4

5. The Geological Cycle: Rock formation Rocks are classified according to their place in the geologic cycle. The three major categories are: • Igneous, • Sedimentary and • Metamorphic A diagram of the rock cycle. Legend: 1 = magma; 2 = crystallization (freezing of rock); 3 = igneous rocks; 4 = erosion; 5 = sedimentation; 6 = sediments & sedimentary rocks; 7 = tectonic burial & metamorphism; 8 = metamorphic rocks; 9 = melting. 5

6. Types of Rocks Igneous Rock: Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word "Igneus" meaning of fire, from "Ignis" meaning fire) is one of the three main rock types (the others being sedimentary and metamorphic rock). The geologic cycle begins with magma, a molten rock deep inside the earth. This magma cools as it moves upward toward the ground surface, forming igneous rocks. When rocks are pushed deep under the Earth's surface, they may melt into magma. If the conditions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it will cool and solidify into an igneous rock. 6

7. Qualities of magma • Natural magmas are hot, viscous siliceous melts in which the chief elements present are silicon and oxygen, and the metals potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and iron (in the order of their chemical activity). • Many other elements, and gases such as CO2, SO2, and H2O • Magmas are thus complex bodies and the rocks derived from them have a wide variety of composition. • Cooled quickly, a magma solidifies as a rock-glass, without crystals; cooled slowly, rock-forming minerals crystallize out from it. • The content of silica (as SiO2) in igneous rocks varies from over 80% to about 40% and results in some, e.g. granites, containing visible quartz (SiO2) and others, e.g. gabbros, having no quartz

8. Types of Rocks Classification of Igneous Rock: On the basis texture (size, shape and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock) and mode of occurrence, Igneous rock is divided broadly into two types: • Intrusive (also called plutonic rocks): form below the ground surface, where they cool slowly, • Extrusive (also called volcanic rocks) arrive at the ground surface in a molten state, such as through volcanic eruption. This type of igneous rock cool very rapidly. Structures of Igneous Rock. Legend: A = magma chamber (batholith); B = dyke/dike; C = laccolith; D = pegmatite; E = sill; F = stratovolcano; processes: 1 = newer intrusion cutting through older one; 2 = xenolith or roof pendant; 3 = contact metamorphism; 4 = uplift due to laccolith emplacement.

9. Volcanoes and Extrusive Rocks • During an eruption lava is extruded from the volcanic vent and gases contained in the lava are separated from it. • They may be discharged quietly if the lava is very fluid and the gas content small, but commonly they are discharged with explosive violence. • Different styles of volcanic action are distinguished as • i) fissure eruptions: Lava issues quietly from long cracks in the Earth's surface, with little gas emission. • ii) central eruptions: A central eruption builds a volcano that has a cone with a summit crater connected to the volcanic 'pipe', through which are ejected lava, gases, and fragments of exploded lava (ash) and broken rock. Vesuvius, Etna, and Stromboli in the Mediterranean region, Popocatapetl, and Cotopaxi in the Andes, the Mounts St Helens, Rainier, Crater Lake, Shaster and Lassen Peak in the Cascades of N. America,

10. Volcanic Eruptions

11. Igneous Rocks-Volcanic Eruption

13. Intrusive rocks and rock forms • A body of magma in the Earth's crust may rise to higher levels and penetrate the rocks above it without reaching the surface; it is then said to be intrusive. • A large mass of magma, many cubic km in volume, is a major intrusion and cools slowly because of its size. Large crystals are able to form and the rocks so formed are coarsely crystalline • When the magma rises and fills fractures or other openings in the country-rocks ,it forms minor intrusions, i.e. smaller igneous bodies. These include dykes, which are wall-like masses, steep or vertical, with approximately parallel sides

14. Major intrusionsPlutons, stocks, and batholiths • The term pluton is used to denote a moderately large body of magma which is intruded essentially at one time and is contained within a single boundary. Plutons have various shapes but are commonly nearly circular in cross-section; an average area for many granitic plutons is about 150 km2 but many are larger • The older term stockwas introduced by R.A. Daly (1912) to denote a vertical nearly cylindrical body of igneous rock, cutting across the rocks into which it is intruded, with a cross-sectional area up to 100 km2 • Most batholiths consist of a cluster of plutons, located by some structural control during their intrusion. Examples in Britain are the Donegal batholith, Ireland, which consists of 8 separate plutons

15. Composition of Igneous Rocks

17. Igneous Rocks Hypabyssal Rock: Hypabyssal rocks are formed when consolidation of magma takes place very close to the earth’s surface in the form of smaller sheet like bodies (known as sills and dykes) that fill cracks inside other rocks. Some extrusive rocks generally have finer grained, smoother surfaces. Some extrusive materials, such as volcanic ash, bypasses the rock stage and forms directly into sediment 17

18. Close-up of granite (an intrusive igneous rock) exposed Basalt (an extrusive igneous rock in this case); light colored tracks show the direction of lava flow. Granite containing potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, quartz, and biotite and/or amphibole Gabbros Specimen

19. Common Igneous Rocks Some common igneous rocks include: Granite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It is the most common and familiar igneous rocks. Granite contains primarily orthoclase feldspar and quartz, with some biotite and amphibole. It is mostly light in color with a white or pink tint according to the color of the feldspar. Engineering properties: • Granite have absorptionas low as 0.24 per cent. • It has an excellent frost resistance. • Because of the minerals composition and interlocking of crystals, granite is hard and abrasion resistant. • The compressive strength of granite is on average 24,500 psi. • It can be concluded that granite can be used to support any load of ordinary structures. 19

20. Common Igneous Rocks Diorite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It is mainly composed of plagioclase feldspar (more than 50 %) and horn blends. However, in some varieties augite and biotite may be present. It is more abundant than syenites but less abundant than granite. Diorite has been used for crushed stone for monumental and decorative purposes than for structural purposes. Syenite: is grained igneous rocks composed essentially of potassium felspare (80-85 %). Biotite and hornblende are commonly present. Quartz is present in small amount. The general properties of syenites is similar to granite. Because of the rarity of syenite, it is of little commercial use as structural material. 20

21. Common Igneous Rocks Some other types of igneous rocks are: Rhyolite, Pumice (can be used as pozzolanic materials with cement), Dolerite, Basalt and Gabbro. Texture: Texture is size, shape and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Texture of rock can either of coarse-crystalline or it can be glassy or amorphous. The texture of the rock is governed by the cooling time of the magma. Crystallization is governed by slow cooling, however, glassy texture or amorphous form is the result of rapid cooling. Types of rock: Holocrystalline, Coarse grained, fine grained, cryptocrystalline and glassy (amorphous) 21

22. Dike and sill Sill: A sill is igneous rock which vary in thickness from a few centimeter to several hundred meters. The sill is parallel to the bedding of rock and may be horizontal, inclined or vertical depending upon the strata. Dike: A dike is vertical wall-like igneous body that cuts the bedding of the rock. The thickness of the dike may vary from a few centimeters to a hundred meter or more. 22

23. Geological significance of Igneous Rocks The upper 16 kilometers (10 mi) of Earth's crust is composed of approximately 95% igneous rocks with only a thin, widespread covering of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are geologically important because: • Their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of the mantle, from which some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted; • Their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time sequence of events; • Their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions.

24. Common Igneous Rocks Geological significance of Igneous Rocks In some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly associated with granites and diorites, whereas ores of chromium and platinum are commonly associated with gabbros.

25. Uses of Igneous Rocks (granites) Because they are so hard, Igneous rocks make useful road building materials. When sheets of igneous rock are cut and polished, they are used inside buildings such as banks and offices, and are also used as gravestones. There are different types of igneous rock, therefore each type has its own uses, such as: Granite: Used for long lasting monuments, for trim and decoration on buildings. Pumice: Because they are so light, it is used quite often as a decorative landscape stone. If grounded to a powder, it is used as an abrasive in polish compound. Crystalline Igneous rocks can be used for jewelry and other similar things. Countertops and building stone.

27. Sedimentary Rocks • Classification of sedimentary Rock • Description of common sedimentary rock • Types of metamorphism • Description of common metamorphic rock

28. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rock is a type of rock that is formed by sedimentation of material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution. Particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment. Before being deposited, sediment was formed by weathering and erosion in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, mass movement or glaciers. 28

29. Development • The components of sediments become hardened into sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, quartzite, limestone and shale by changes which commence soon after the sediment has accumulated. • Water percolating through the voids (or pores) between the particles of sediment carries mineral matter which coats the grains and acts as a cement that binds them together such processes are known as cementation', they may eventually completely fill the pores and are responsible for converting many coarse-grained sediments to rock • In course of time mud will become a coherent mass of clay, mudstone, or shale

30. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rock is formed by deposition and consolidation of minerals and organic materials and from precipitation of minerals from solution. The processes that form sedimentary rock occur at the surface of the earth and within bodies of water. Rock formed from sediments covers 70-80 % of the earth’s land area, and includes common types such as limestone, chalk, sandstone, conglomerate and shale. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks and constitute a total of 5% of the earth crust volume. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding. The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels canals or other constructions. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels, drinking water or ores.

31. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks The scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology. Sedimentology is both part of geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth sciences, such as penology, geomorphology, geochemistry or structural geology. The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for scientific knowledge about the Earth's history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology and the history of life.

32. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Mechanically formed: consisting of materials (gravels, sand, silt and clay) suspended in flowing water. The suspended materials are then deposited and consolidated. Water percolates into cracks and fissures within the rock, freezes, and expands. The force exerted by the expansion is sufficient to widen cracks and break off pieces of rock. Heating and cooling of the rock, and the resulting expansion and contraction, also aids the process. Mechanical weathering contributes further to the breakdown of rock by increasing the surface area exposed to chemical agents. The mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are of three types: • Rudaceous rocks which is the cementing together of boulders, for example, conglomerate. • Arenaceous rocks for example sandstone, • Argillaceous rocks which is clay rocks for example shale 32

33. Outcrop of Ordovician oil shale- Northern Estonia. Clay stone deposited in Glacial Lake Missoula, Montana, USA. Cyclic alternation of competent and less competent beds in the Blue Lias Cross-bedding and scour in a fine sandstone.

34. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Organically formed: Consisting of accumulated animals and plants remains. Organic sedimentary rocks contain materials generated by living organisms, and include carbonate minerals created by organisms, such as corals, mollusks (Snail, slug, Octopus) , and foraminifera (seawater Organism) , which cover the ocean floor with layers of calcium carbonate, which can later form limestone. Other examples include stromatolites, the flint nodules found in chalk (which is itself a biochemical sedimentary rock, a form of limestone), and coal and oil shale (derived from the remains of tropical plants and subjected to heat). They are: • Calcareous rocks, lime stone • Carbonaceous rocks, coal

35. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Chemically formed: this type of rocks is formed by precipitation and accumulation of soluble constituents. Chemical sedimentary rocks form when minerals in solution become supersaturated and precipitate. In marine environments, this is a method for the formation of limestone. Another common environment in which chemical sedimentary rocks form is a body of water that is evaporating. Evaporation decreases the amount of water without decreasing the amount of dissolved material. Therefore, the dissolved material can become oversaturated and precipitate. Sedimentary rocks from this process can include the evaporite minerals halite (rock salt), sylvite, barite and gypsum. These are • Carbonate rocks, Limestone, dolomite • Sulphate rocks, Gypsum • Chloride rocks, salt

36. Consolidation Consolidation is a process by which soft and loose sediments are converted into hard and firm rocks. Consolidation is of three types: • Compaction and Dehydration: The squeezing out of water from the pores of the sediments and its changing to solid mass by cohesion between the particles and pressure from overlying rock is called compaction and dehydration. • Cementation: Many coarse grained sediments are consolidated by cementation, which is the process of precipitation of some cementing materials, for example, silica, calcium carbonate, iron oxides and clay minerals. • Crystallization: Chemically formed sedimentary rocks such as limestone, dolomites, gypsum etc are consolidated chiefly by the crystallization of their constituents. 36

37. Structural Features Structural features of sedimentary rocks are of great value in determining their origin. The main structures are as follows: Stratification: The deposition of sediments into layer or beds is called stratification. The thickness of a single bed may vary from a few centimeters to many meters. The stratification is formed due to the following. • Difference in the kinds of materials deposited for example shale and lime stone • Difference in the size of particles deposited for example coarse grained and fine grained sandstone beds • Difference in the color of the materials deposited for example light grey and dark grey layers of limestone 37

38. Lamination: Thin bedding, less than one centimeter in thickness, are called lamination. It is usually fined grained sedimentary rocks like shales. Cross-bedding: It is also called current bedding or false bedding. Cross-bedding are the minor bedding or lamination which lie at an angle to the planes of general stratification. This structure is found in shallow water and wind formed deposits.

39. Different types of sedimentary rocks Conglomerate: The pebbles and gravels on consolidation and cementation produce a rock known as conglomerate. Gravels are deposited for the most part by water. Water circulating through gravel deposits may precipitate out silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxides, which act as cements binding the gravels together into conglomerates. Sandstones: Most sand is a water deposit. In arid regions, widespread sands have been laid down by wind action. Volcanic eruptions, glacial action, mechanical and chemical weathering, and organisms produce sands. The sand particles are deposited and then cemented together by materials like silica, calcite, iron oxide or clay. Sandstones may be siliceous sandstone that is the cementing materials is silica; it may be calcarious sandstone in which the cementing materials is calcium carbonate; ferruginous sandstone and argillaceous sandstone having iron oxide and clay as cementing materials 39

40. Different types of sedimentary rocks The thoroughly cemented sandstone with quartz are termed as orthoquartzite. Argillaceous rocks: variously called mudstone, claystone, and shale (compacted or cemented) are among the most abundant of sedimentary rocks. It is a laminated fine grained sedimentary rock which is mainly composed of clay minerals and some silt-size grains of quartz. The claystones, because they are characteristically soft and weak are not suited to most construction purposes. The compacted shale lose strength when wet and are subject to plastic deformation. Under load they are subject to failure by flow. The cemented shales have a strength comparable to concrete but have a relatively high elasticity. Clay stones underlying the sites of heavy structures should be test in both wet and dry conditions. Clay stone has a limited use. It serves as a raw materials for the ceramic industry in some places and also used as raw materials for cement production. 40

41. Different types of sedimentary rocks Carbonate rocks: The carbonate rocks are chiefly the products of marine or fresh water sedimentation. They are predominantly chemical sediments either formed by metabolic process of organism or precipitated inorgainically. Mineralogically, the carbonate rocks are comparatively simple. There are two main varieties; the limestone composed chiefly of the calcite, and the dolomite composed chiefly of dolomite. The carbonate rocks, particularly the limestones, have a very wide use in modern industry. The largest single use is as crushed stone. Limestone is one of the leading dimension stones being utilized both for internal and external work. Commercial lime is derived from the burning of limestone. 41

43. Quartzite, a form of metamorphic rock, Metamorphic Rocks

44. Metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rock is the result of the transformation of an existing rock type, the protolith, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form". When the pre-existing rocks (sedimentary or igneous rock) are subjected to increased temperature, pressure and action of chemically active fluids, metamorphic rocks are formed. During metamorphism re-crystallization of mineral constituent takes place, as a result new minerals and new texture are produced. The metamorphic processes generally improve the engineering behavior of these rocks by increasing their hardness and strength. Nevertheless, some metamorphic rocks still can be problematic. Some metamorphic rocks are foliated, which means they have oriented grains similar to bedding plains in sedimentary rocks. These foliation is important because the shear strength is less for stresses acting parallel to the foliation. 44

45. Metamorphic rocks Un-weathered non-foliated rocks generally provide excellent support for engineering works, and are similar to intrusive igneous rocks in their quality. However, some foliated rocks are prone to slippage along the foliation planes. Schist is the most notable in this regard because of its strong foliation ad the presence of mica. The 1928 failure St.Fancis Dam in California has been partially attributed to shearing in schist and the 1959 failure of Malpasset dam in France to shearing in a schistose gneiss. 45 Folded foliation in a metamorphic rock

46. Types of Metamorphism Contact metamorphism is the name given to the changes that take place when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock. The changes that occur are greatest wherever the magma comes into contact with the rock because the temperature are highest at this boundary and decrease with distance from it. Around the igneous rock that forms from the cooling magma is a metamorphosed zone called a contact metamorphism aureole. • shale may become a dark argillaceous hornfels, • Limestone may change to a grey, yellow or greenish lime-silicate-hornfels or siliceous marble, A contact metamorphic rock made of inter layered calcite and serpentine from the Precambrian of Canada 46

47. Types of Metamorphism Regional metamorphism is the name given to changes in great masses of rock over a wide area. Rock can be metamorphosed simply by being at great depths below the earth’s surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic. Mississippian marble in Big Cottonwood

48. Different Metamorphic rocks Marble: Marbles are metamorphosed carbonate rocks, derived from limestones and dolomites. The color of marble is variable, however, if the rock is pure calcite or dolomite marble it is generally white. Various impurities give rise to various shades. Green, pinks and buffs are common shades. The principal uses of marble are as cut stone for building and ornamental or decorative use. 48

49. Different Metamorphic rocks Slate: Slate is a dense metamorphic rock, with a strongly developed foliation. It is produced by the metamorphism of shale. The rock cleavage, or split-ability is therefore excellent and is the outstanding characteristic of slates. The color of slate varies from iron-tinted reds through various shades of gray and green. The gray shades are due to carbonaceous matter, the greens to chloritic micas. The texture of slates is very fine or dense and foliation is good to perfect. Slate is used widely in the electrical industries as switchboards.

50. Different Metamorphic rocks Phyllite: Phyllite are strongly foliated metamorphic rocks similar to the slates but of slightly coarser texture. Phyllite have shiny luster due the presence of large amount of fine flakes of mica. Phyllite gradually pass into slates which are the first stage in the metaphorphism of shale. It has little use. It is too soft for crushed stone, and too weak for structural uses. Schist: Schist are foliated metamorphic rocks of medium to coarse texture. They are the product of the same processes of rock flow and recrystallization that produce slates and phyllite. The color of schist vary according to the mineralogical composition, as does also the perfection of cleavage. Schist has of little use. Because of the foliation, they are generally weak rocks. Some schists especially rich in muscovite are a source of scrap mica. 50