Western Civilization II HIS-102

1. Western Civilization IIHIS-102 Unit 7 – Restoration to Revolution: 1815-1848

2. The Congress of Vienna • Congress of Vienna (September 1814-June 1815) • The main participants included: • Alexander I of Russia (1801–1825) • Enlightened monarch and absolutist monarch • Succeeded his murdered father in 1801 • Presented himself as the “liberator” of Europe • Europe feared an all-powerful Russia as it had feared an all-powerful France • Prince von Metternich, Austrian prime minister • The “architect of the peace” • Lifelong hatred of political change • Feared Alexander might provoke another revolution • His peace prevented a major European war until 1914

3. The Congress of Vienna • Other participants: • Talleyrand, French foreign minister • Bishop and revolutionary • Escaped the Terror by exiling himself to the United States • Served under Napoleon then turned against him • Foreign minister to Louis XVIII • Viscount Castlereagh, British foreign secretary • Karl August von Hardenberg, chancellor of Prussia • Each side had its own goals and some shared ones: • Metternich, Castlereagh, and Talleyrand wanted to keep the balance of power in Europe • Alexander wanted the creation of a new Kingdom of Poland • Hardenberg wanted to expand the size of Prussia

4. Outcomes of the Congress • The restoration of order and legitimate authority • Recognized Louis XVIII as legitimate sovereign of France • Restored Bourbon leaders in Spain and the two Sicilies • The prevention of French expansion • Surrounded France with powerful states • What to do with the HRE? • Created the German Federation • The original 300+ states were now divided into 39 states plus Prussia and Austria • The president of the Federation was the Austrian emperor • The kingdoms set up by Napoleon remained intact

5. Outcomes of the Congress • Poland • A nominally independent kingdom of Poland • The king of Russia was also the king of Poland • British compensations • Received French territories in South Africa and South America • Prussia also received parts of Poland, Saxony, and Swedish Pomerania • The Papal States were recreated and handed over to the Pope

6. Congress of Vienna

7. Concert of Europe • The main post-Congress focus was securing the peace and creating permanent stability throughout Europe • Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia form the Quadruple Alliance • In 1818, joined by France (the Quintuple Alliance) • Designed to keep the balance of power and to maintain the ideals of conservativism • Called for cooperation in the suppression of all disturbances to the peace • Alexander and the Holy Alliance • Established a ruler’s legitimacy based on international treaties and not divine right

8. Reaction to Restoration • Carbonari (“Charcoal Burners”) • Secret society organized in Naples during Napoleon’s reign • Vowed to oppose the government in Vienna • Spread through southern Europe and France in the 1820s • Aims • Some called for a constitution in 1820 • Others sang the praises of Bonaparte • Naples and the Piedmont • Opposition turned to revolt • Restored monarchs abandoned their promises

9. Reaction to Restoration • Metternich summoned Austrian, Prussian, and Russian representatives • The Troppau Memorandum (1820) • If a country’s government was overthrown by revolution, it was no longer part of the European alliance • If this new government was seen as a threat to the rest of Europe, it is the duty of the other countries to end that threat • It was an attempt by Metternich to keep the balance of power in Europe • France and Britain refused to go along with it

10. Reaction to Restoration • In Russia, instability came in the form of the Decembrists • Death of Tsar Alexander I occurred in December 1825 • Most came from noble families or were members of elite regiments • Saw Russia as the liberator of Europe • Believed that Russia needed reform • Serfdom contradicted the promise of liberation • Called for the curbing of the tsar’s power • No political program • Ranged from constitutional monarchs to Jacobin republicans • Wanted Alexander’s brother, Constantine, to assume the throne and guarantee a constitution

11. Reaction to Restoration • Nicholas I (1825–1855) • Crushed the Decembrist revolt • Instituted reactionary policies against the liberals • Set up the political police known as the Third Section • They were allowed to arrest and deport anyone they thought was suspicious or dangerous to the state of Russia • Signs of change in Russia • The bureaucracy became more centralized and efficient • Less dependence on the nobility for political support • The codification of the legal system (1832) • Landowners reorganized their estates

12. Reaction to Restoration • In the Balkans, there were local movements in Greece and Serbia began to demand autonomy • Greek war for independence (1821–1827) • European sympathy and European identity • Christians cast the rebellion as a war between Christianity and Islam • Celebrating Greeks and demonizing Turks • At first, the European powers did not want to get involved in the war • Supporting the Greeks would be supporting revolutionaries • British, French, and Russian troops went in against the Turks in 1827

13. Reaction to Restoration • The London Protocols (1829–1830) • Established Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire • Serbia • Europe sided with the Serbs against the Ottomans • Serbian semi-independence • An Orthodox Christian principality under Ottoman rule • Results • European opportunism • Greece and Serbia did not break close ties with the Ottomans

14. Ottoman Empire in 1830

15. Advent of the “Isms” • Age of “Isms” (1815-1848) • Rise of new new doctrines and movements • Many based in Enlightenment • Reflected changes brought about by the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution • Doctrines were modified to end in “ism” • Includes: • Conservatism • Liberalism • Radicalism • Socialism • Feminism

16. Conservativism • Conservativism • Reactionary movement to protect the old school institutions • Included absolute monarchy, aristocracy and the church • Reaction against Revolutionary ideals • Strongest in Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia • Edmund Burke (1729-1797) • Saw the ideals of the Revolution as being too radical • Strongly against the violent overthrow of government • Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) • Pushed for the restoration of a hereditary monarchy • Believed that only a monarch who had absolute control could bring about “order in society”

17. Joseph de Maistre • (1753-1821)

18. Classical Liberalism • Liberalism • Term first used in Spain by anti-Bonapartists • Later adopted by French anti-monarchists after 1814 • In Britain, ideas were adopted by the Whig party • Came from the middle and professional classes • They believed in self-government and wanted representative governments • They also promoted laissez-faire styled economics • John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) • On Liberty (1859) pushed the concept of moral and economic freedoms from the state • His ideas include freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, freedom in morality, and freedom of assembly

19. John Stuart Mill • (1806-1873)

20. Radicalism • Radicalism • Had its roots in Great Britain with the Philosophical Radicals • Shared many of the same ideas of the Jacobins • The word “radical” comes from the Latin word “root” • They wanted to redo all of government • This included granting the right to vote and participation in government to all free men • Many wanted the abolition of the monarchy as well • This lasted until the latter part of the 19th century when the popularity of Queen Victoria became almost universal

21. Republicanism • Republicanism • Form of radicalism found on the continent • Wanted to reconstruct the ideals of the Republic without the Reign of Terror • Many of its followers came from the intelligentsia • Did include working-class leaders and veterans of the French Revolution • They embraced the ideas of the radicals • Wanted universal male suffrage • Were opposed to the church and the monarchy

22. Robert Owen • (1771-1858)

23. Socialism • Early Socialists (pre-1848) • Believed that the economic system was aimless and unjust • Economic power should be in the hands of the workers and not the owners • Included communal ownership of industry, end of laissez-faire economics, and higher wages • Wanted a more equal and fair distribution of wealth throughout society • Set the stage for post-1848 thinkers • Including Frederick Engels and Karl Marx

24. Socialism • Robert Owen (1771-1858) • British businessman who set up a cooperative in New Lanark • Provided better working conditions than the local mill • Also set up a school and a company store that sold goods to the workers at just above wholesale • Form of paternalistic capitalism • Investors were unhappy as they were not getting large profits • Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) • Believed industrial leaders should be put in positions of authority • The church should be replaced with science • Population should be educated so it could evolve

25. Socialism • Karl Marx (1818–1883) and socialism • Influenced by Hegel’s philosophy • Studied philosophy but became a journalist • The Rheinische Zeitung (1842–1843) • Exiled to Paris, then Brussels, then London • Partnership with Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) • Experience in the Manchester textile factories • The Condition of the Working Classes in England (1844) • In 1847, Marx and Engels joined the League of the Just (later renamed the Communist League)

26. Socialism • The Communist Manifesto (1848) • History and conflict • Master and slave • Lord and serf • Bourgeois and proletariat • Capitalism would “dig its own grave” • With the collapse of capitalism, the workers would seize the state • Communism • Dialectical materialism

27. Mary Wollstonecraft • (1759-1797)

28. Feminism • Feminism • Emerged in the 19th century • Term “feminism” did not appear until the 1830s • Shared similar ideas with the liberals and radicals • Believed in laws to mankind • Main concern was to expand the rights of women • Both in home and in the public • Wanted more equality in private life (e.g., not losing property when married) • In public, wanted the right to vote and receive the same civil rights as men

29. Feminism • Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) • Feminist during the Enlightenment • Vindication on the Rights of Women (1792) • This stated that women had the same innate capacity for reason and self-government as men • Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality • Saint Simonian Movement • Mainly in France • Believed men and women were different • Called for women to be well-educated to raise intelligent and competent children • Pushed for the creation of all-girl schools and the allowance of women into higher education

30. Feminism • Feminism in England • Main groups were the Philosophical Radicals and the socialists • Appeal on Behalf of… Women… (1825) • Written by Anne Wheeler and William Thompson • Criticized marriage as being oppressive to women • Advocated a "partnership between equals" to bring happiness into marriage and in society • The Subjection of Women (1869) • Written by Harriet Taylor and John Stuart Mill • Women were inherently equal to men and thus deserving to the same rights as men • Society itself would benefit if women were allowed to participate fully in public life

31. Harriet Taylor • (1807-1858)

32. Nationalism • Nation, from the Latin nasci (to be born) • The French Revolution defined “nation” to mean the people, or the sovereign people • Celebrating a new political community, not a territory or ethnicity • Nationalism in the early nineteenth century • Nation symbolized legal equality, constitutional government, and an end to feudal privilege • Nationalism as a threat to the local power of aristocratic elites

33. Nationalism • Nationalism was strongest in disorganized and divided countries • Included Italy, Germany, Poland, and Austria • Was pushed by the intelligentsia • Played on Herder’s idea of Volksgeist • Started as cultural nationalism but eventually turned to politics • Wanted the creation of either a separate nation or a unified one • Early nationalist movements met in secret • They called for the overthrow of government • Led to the creation of many secret societies, especially in Italy

34. Liberty Leading the People • July Revolution

35. July Revolution • Charles X (1824–1830) • Wanted to reverse the legacies of the Revolution and Napoleon • Restored the Catholic Church to its traditional place • Provoked widespread discontent • July Ordinances (July 1830) • It dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and called for new elections • The bourgeoisie were prohibited from running for office • Created a new Council of State with many ultra-royalists as ministers • It suspended freedom of the press

36. July Revolution • July Revolution (July 27-29, 1830) • Riots broke out in the city of Paris in response to the Ordinances • Barricades were set up around the city • A new provisional government was set up • Abdication of Charles (August 2, 1830) • Charles did not wait around to be captured • He abdicated in favor of his 10-year-old grandson, Henri • Then fled to England

37. July Revolution • Louis Philippe (1830–1848) • He was the Duke d’Orléans and was a Jacobin during the Revolution • Was crowned on August 9, 1830 as “King of the French” rather than “King of France” • Promoted as a constitutional monarch • The “July Monarchy” • Doubled the number of eligible voters • Voting remained a privilege • Major winners from this revolution: the propertied classes

38. King Louis-Philippe • (1830-1848)

39. Other 1830 Revolutions • Belgian Revolution • Had been merged with the United Provinces of the Netherlands • News of the July Revolution catalyzed Belgian opposition • Brussels rebelled and the great powers guaranteed Belgian autonomy • Poland Revolution • Not an independent state—under Russian governance • Had its own parliament, a constitution, and guarantees of basic liberties which were ignored by Constantine • Moved toward revolt in 1830 • By 1831, Russian forces retook Warsaw • Poland placed under Russian military rule

40. George IV of Britain • Prince Regent (1811-1820) • King (1820-1830)

41. Reform in Great Britain • Post 1815 Britain faced agricultural depression, low wages, unemployment, and bad harvests • This led to social unrest • Peterloo Massacre (August 16, 1819) • Crowd of 60,000 protested against the high grain prices at St. Peter’s Field in Manchester • Demanded parliamentary reform as well • Military was called in to put down the protest • A panic broke out and troops fired on the people • 11 people were killed with over 400 wounded

42. Reform in Great Britain • Parliament passed the Six Acts (1819) • Outlawed “seditious and blasphemous” literature • Increased stamp tax • Restricted the right of public meeting • After the July Revolution, there were key Tory reforms • Some toleration for Catholics and Dissenters • Refused to reform political representation in the House of Commons • There were also some liberal reforms • Whigs, industrial middle classes, and radical artisans demand reform • The desire to enfranchise responsible citizens

43. Reform in Great Britain • Reform Bill of 1832 • Eliminated “rotten” boroughs • Reallocated 143 parliamentary seats from the rural south to the industrial north • Expanded the franchise • The political strength of landed aristocratic interests remained • The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) • Protected British landlords from foreign competition • Kept the price of bread artificially high • The Anti–Corn Law League • Held large meetings throughout northern England • Lobbied members in Parliament • Persuaded Prime Minister Peel to repeal the Corn Laws

44. The Chartist Movement • Grew in response to the Reform Act of 1832 • Included working class and radicals who wanted greater enfranchisement • The Six Points of the People’s Charter • Universal white male suffrage • The secret ballot • Abolition of property qualification for membership in the Commons • Annual parliamentary elections • Payment of salaries to members of the Commons • Equal electoral districts

45. The Chartist Movement • With deteriorating economic conditions, Chartism spread in the 1840s • Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals • William Lovett • Self-improvement • Education of artisans was the answer • Feargus O’Connor • Appealed to the impoverished and desperate class of workers • Attacked industrialization • Bronterre O’Brien • Openly admired Robespierre

46. The Chartist Movement • Chartists presented petitions to Parliament in 1839 and 1842 • Both rejected • In April 1848, Chartists planned a major demonstration and show of force in London • 25,000 workers marched to Parliament with a petition of 6 million signatures demanding the Six Points • However, many of the signatures were forgeries • This discredited the movement • Many of the supporters turned to other radical movements

47. Protest of 1848

48. “Hungry Forties” • Europe suffered economically during the 1840s • Industrial economic downturn late 1830s • Led to a slowdown in industry and high unemployment • Bad harvests throughout Europe in 1839-1842 • Potato blight high northern Europe hard in 1846 (esp. Ireland and Germany) • By 1847, food prices doubled • Bread and potato riots broke out throughout Europe • People lost faith in their governments • Governments sent in military to suppress the riots • Made them look more authoritarian and incompetent

49. Revolutions of 1848 • Near universal uprisings • Occurred throughout Europe • Timing was nearly simultaneous • Only Russia, the Netherlands, and Great Britain avoided upheaval • Goals of the revolts • Constitutional governments • Independence and unification • End to the remnants of serfdom and manorial systems • Revolutions of this period were short lived • Brought to an end through military means • Start a new period of reactionism

50. Republique Française