Western Civilization II HIS-102

1. Western Civilization IIHIS-102 UNIT 2 - Religious Wars And State Building (1540-1660)

2. Introduction • The period of 1540 to 1660 is considered one of the most turbulent in European history • It is a period of a sharp rise in inflation and a further deepening of the gulf between the rich and the poor • It is plagued by a century of violent wars of religion • It is also a period of time of political instability • Old powers fall • A new type of government emerges: the absolute monarchy

3. Sweeping Changes • Prior to 1540, Europe was enjoying diverse forms of prosperity • Populations were finally recovering from the 14th century plague • From 1450 to 1600, the population went from 50 to 90 million • There was a period of economic growth • With the discovery of the New World, this growth was expected to continue • Governments were becoming more effective in their management • Thus they were more successful at keeping the inside of their country stable • So what went wrong?

4. Price Revolution • Price Revolution • Between 1550 and 1600, prices doubled and even quadrupled in certain areas • Mainly due to a rise in population but no rise in agricultural production • There were no technological breakthroughs in agriculture to produce enough food for the population • The food shortage led to a sharp increase in cost • A larger percentage of people’s incomes were going to food • During this period, wages either stagnated or declined • Increase in population led to an increase in the labor supply • Because there were too many workers, wages either remained the same or went down

5. Price Revolution • Devaluation of silver • Due to the large influx of Spanish bullion from the New World • These new coins quickly circulated throughout Europe • Only large-scale farmers, landlords, and some merchants profited from the Price Revolution • The masses were negatively affected • When disasters hit, people would literally starve to death • Even the monarchies were affected • The governments required a constant income • The taxes were worth less and less as money became devalued • Wars were becoming increasingly more expensive • They responded by levying even higher taxes than before

6. Peasants during a summer harvest (1568)

7. Religious Conflict • The religious atmosphere of Europe during this period was also tense • Catholics and Protestants hated one another • As long as these rivalries remained heated, wars were inevitable • Leaders also fanned the flames of religious conflict • Many required their states to have a unified religion • Minority religious groups were seen as threats • Many were kicked out of country • This led to civil wars in numerous country • They expanded into international wars in many cases • From 1540 to 1648, Europe was plagued with conflict

8. Diet of Augsburg (1530)

9. German Wars of Religion • The religious wars began in Germany • Between the Lutherans and the Catholics • Lutheranism was gaining in popularity with the German princes • Charles V was busy with more greater threats to his rule • This included the French and the Ottoman Turks • He had hoped that the Pope would take care of the situation • In 1547, Charles was able to focus on Germany • With a huge army behind him, he attacked the Protestants • With the help of the pope, Charles was able to defeat numerous Protestant strongholds by 1547 and force them to reconvert • But by this point Protestantism was so popular there was nothing he could do would stop the movement

10. German Wars of Religion • Revolts continued to break out throughout the Empire • Even the Catholic princes were fearful of Charles taking away what little independence they had • In 1552, the Elector of Saxony had signed an alliance with King Henry II of France • This would have brought France into the war • However, by this point, Charles was not up for a heavy war and had his brother Ferdinand work on a truce • The war finally ended with the Peace of Augsburg (1555) • Lutherans were given equal legal status in the Empire • Cuiusregio, eiusreligio (“whose reign, that religion”) • This was a victory for the independence of the German states and further weakened the Holy Roman Empire

11. Henry II of France • (1547-1559)

12. French Wars of Religion • French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) • This period is also known as the French Civil War • Huguenots were the main Protestant group in France • French Calvinists • They made up 10-20% of the French population by 1562 • It became popular amongst the aristocratic women who then in turn converted their husbands • Under the rule of Henry II, there was an uneasy peace between the crown and the Huguenots • Huguenots were forced to meet in secret at first but over time grew in popularity

13. French Wars of Religion • Expansion of Calvinism • First Huguenot communities were built starting in 1546 • In 1555, the first Huguenot church was erected in Paris • By the late 1550s, they demanded freedom of worship • On June 30, 1559, Henry II died in a jousting accident • This left his 15-year-old son, Francis II as king • He was a sickly child • Henry’s wife, Catherine de’ Medici, was chosen to be regent • The struggles between the Catholics and the Huguenots began after Francis took the throne

14. Francis II • (1559-1560)

15. French Wars of Religion • One the one side you had the Guise family • Led by Francis Duke of Guise and Charles Cardinal of Lorraine • Believed that the country should be firmly Catholic • Instituted an intense policy of persecution against the Huguenots • On the other side was Louis, Prince de Condé • He was the leader of the Huguenot movement • On December 5, 1560, Francis II died • He had an ear infection that led to the formation of an abscess in his brain

16. French Wars of Religion • Next up was his ten year old brother, Charles IX • His mother, Catherine de’ Medici, was again named regent • Massacre at Vassy (March 1, 1562) • Duke of Guise attacked a group of Huguenots who were worshipping inside the city walls • 23 Huguenots were killed and over 100 more injured • Prince de Condé called all Protestants to arm themselves in self-defense • The war went on for eight years with intermittent truces • During this time, the Prince de Condé died and Henry of Navarre took control of the Huguenots

17. French Wars of Religion • By 1570, the French treasury was shrinking from the cost of the war • Charles began negotiations for a peace • Peace of Saint-Germain (August 8, 1570) • Huguenots were given freedom of conscience throughout France • Were also allowed to hold public office • They retained the right to worship publicly in the regions allowed before the wars • In order to solidify peace, Catherine arranged for a marriage • This was to be between her daughter Marguerite to Henry of Navarre, the Huguenot leader

18. Marguerite de Valois

19. French Wars of Religion • The wedding created a tense situation in Paris • There were many who would not support the wedding • The Parisians were very uncomfortable with thousands of Huguenots in the city escorting their prince • On August 22, 1572, an assassination attempt was made on one of the Huguenot leaders, the Admiral de Coligny • Catherine ordered the French guards to attack the Huguenots as a “preemptive strike” against Huguenot retaliation • St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (August 24, 1572) • All but two of the Huguenot leaders, Henry of Navarre and the young Henri I, Prince of Condé, were murdered • The Parisian people joined in the fighting • There are estimates that as many of 3,000 Huguenots were murdered in Paris alone

20. French Wars of Religion • The fighting spread to the countryside • An additional 10,000 were killed • Charles IX claimed responsibility for the massacre stating that there had been a plot against the crown • Charles died on May 30, 1574 from tuberculosis • He was only 24 • Next in line was his brother Henry III • He was 22 years old when he took the throne but was the best “king material” out of the four brothers • Henry main goal was to find peace between the Catholics and Huguenots • The Guise family was not going to make this possible

21. Henry III • (1574-1589)

22. French Wars of Religion • In 1576, the Guises formed the Catholic League and renewed the war • In 1584, Henry’s last brother, François, died • Since Henry III had no children, this meant that the next person in line for the throne was Henry of Navarre • This would not be tolerated by the Catholics • The Catholic League dominated this phase of the war • Guise marched into Paris with his troops in 1588, forcing Henry III to flee • Guise also made Henry III sign a number of edicts excluding Henry of Navarre from the throne along with any heretics

23. French Wars of Religion • By this point, Henry III was tired of being dominated by Guise • He discovered that Guise was receiving aid from Philip II of Spain • Guise also had been negotiating a treaty with Spain declaring Philip’s daughter to be the heir presumptive • On December 23, 1588, Henry III had the Guise brothers assassinated • Henry then went on to make an alliance with Henry of Navarre • On August 1, 1589, Jacques Clément, a fanatical Dominican friar, stabbed Henry III • Before he died, Henry III declared that Henry of Navarre was the legitimate heir to the throne

24. Henry IV • (1589-1610)

25. French Wars of Religion • Henry IV’s rule marked the beginning of the Bourbon dynasty • War continued for the next nine years • Many of the nobility were staunch Catholic and refused to follow Henry IV • By this point, the state of France was in a miserable condition • The country was nearly bankrupt • Many farmlands and towns had been abandoned, and many of the roads were in ruins • Because of the warfare, trade was at a standstill • Henry realized that he had to do something drastic to win the hearts of the French

26. French Wars of Religion • On July 23, 1593, Henry converted to Catholicism • Protestantism was more of a “family tradition” rather than a religious devotion to him • On March 22, 1594, Henry was able to finally retake the city of Paris • He supposedly said that “Paris is well worth the mass!” • However, Philip II continued to support the Catholic League and its efforts to oust Henry • In January 1595, Henry declared war against Spain

27. French Wars of Religion • For the next three years, Henry was fighting the remnants of the League as well as Spain • Henry was forced to bribe many Catholic noblemen to lay down their arms and accept him as king • Edict of Nantes (April 13, 1598) • This was Henry’s “bribe” to the Huguenots • It established Catholicism as the official religion of France • Huguenots allowed to worship, attend universities, and serve as public officials • It created separate spheres of influence between the two religions • On May 2, 1598, the war was finally brought to an end

28. Philip II of Spain • (1556-1598)

29. Dutch Wars with Spain • One of the most powerful political figures at this time was Philip II of Spain • He depended heavily on the income from the colonies • However, all of the gold and silver (specie) coming into Europe devalued the currency • The war with France put Spain heavily into debt • 2/3 of Spain’s income went to paying interest on all the loans taken out by the government • Spain’s main source of income in Europe came from the Low Countries • This is modern day Belgium and the Netherlands which were under Spanish control at this time

30. Dutch Wars with Spain • During the reign of Charles V, this region prospered • He had allowed the government to essentially run on its own • The southern Low Countries had the greatest per capita wealth in all of Europe • Antwerp as one of the leading financial and commercial centers in Europe • On October 25, 1555, Charles gave the Low Countries to his son, Philip II • Philip hoped to increase the amount of money coming to Spain from the Low Countries • This included Philip playing a greater role in the region

31. Dutch Wars with Spain • During this period, many Protestants were moving into the Low Countries • After 1559, many Huguenots migrating to the Low Countries • There were a large number of Anabaptists and some Lutherans • Philip himself was a staunch Catholic and believed God had chosen him to combat the forces of evil • William the Silent and a group of noblemen recognized the growing tensions in the country • They made it their duty to bring peace back to the region • Starting in 1561, these noblemen sent numerous petitions to Margaret of Parma, Philip’s appointee to the Low Countries • They asked for religious toleration for the Calvinists to ease some of that tension but she refused

32. William the Silent • (1533-1584)

33. Dutch Wars With Spain • “Breaking of the Images” (August 1566) • Mobs of radical Protestants desecrated hundreds of churches and monasteries • Was a reaction to the increased persecution of Protestants • In response, Philip II sent in an army of twelve thousand Spanish troops • They were led by the Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, the 3rd Duke of Alva • Once the radicals were defeated, Alva then instituted a reign of terror • He set up the Council of Troubles which was a special tribunal to deal with heresy and sedition

34. Dutch Wars With Spain • William the Silent was forced to flee the Low Countries • From abroad, he converted to Protestantism and reorganized the resistance movement • He was able to get aid from France, Germany and England • Now more organized, the resistance movement began their own attacks • In the summer of 1572, William seized the northern Low Countries • The Low Countries began to split along religious lines • The Protestant northern part broke off forming the United Provinces of the Netherlands • The Catholic southern part remained loyal to Philip

35. Dutch Wars With Spain • In 1584, William was assassinated by a fanatical Catholic • His son, William II Duke of Orange, continued to lead the resistance • At this point, England became involved in the war • Elizabeth openly declared her country’s support of the resistance • England was successful in its attacks at sea, but not on land • The war continued to wage for a number of years with both sides having major losses and defeats • In 1609, a ceasefire was declared between the two sides known as the Twelve Years’ Truce

36. Spanish Armada (1588)

37. Spanish Armada • For the past few years, English ships had been terrorizing Spanish ships and colonies • This was done under the guise of revenge for the Spanish attacks on the Dutch • Sir Francis Drake and other seamen were shipping contraband to the Spanish colonies in violation of Philip II’s policies • Philip was thoroughly annoyed at these tactics • In 1585, Philip decided to construct a large armada to use against England • His fleet would help support an invasion of England • This way, he would not only regain control of the Atlantic but convert England back to Catholicism

38. Spanish Armada • When Drake found out about the Armada, he sailed ships to the Spanish coast in April 1587 • He made it straight into the port of Cadiz • There he destroyed supplies put aside for the Armada and set vessels on fire • He later boasted that he “singed the king’s beard” • He then went on to patrol the Spanish coast, destroying any vessels and supplies that he could • All of this delayed the deployment of the Armada for over a year • This incident proved that the Spanish fleet was no match for the English but Philip continued on with his preparations

39. Spanish Armada • There were a number of key problems with the Armada • Assumed that the English navy would flee at the sight of it • It was led by theDuke of Medina-Sedona • When the Armada took off on May 30, 1588, it was soon heavily damaged by a storm • This forced them back to port for repairs • Sedona even told Philip that this might not be the wisest course of action but Philip would not hear of it • The fleet set off for a second time on July 12, 1588 • The English worked together to protect their country • Improved land defenses by training a militia and setting up a series of bonfires and beacon towers along the coastline • The navy was reinforced and raised from 34 ships to 200

40. Spanish Armada • First sighting (July 29, 1588) • The beacon lights and bonfires were set all along the coastline and troops were readied • The English navy used their speed and longer ranged guns to attack the Armada • They constantly remained out of shooting distance of the Spanish ships • On August 7, the English sent eight “fireships” • This caused the Spanish ships to scatter • On August 8, the English attacked the Armada off the Gravelines • The English were now in range for the Spanish guns • The Spanish were not trained properly for battle

41. Spanish Armada • The Armada was forced to retreat • The “Protestant” winds forced the Armada to travel back to Spain by going north around Scotland • Between the bad weather and attacks by the English fleet, most of the Armada was destroyed • Only 60 ships returned to Spain and most of those were too damaged to be repaired • Around 15,000 Spanish died • Defeat of the Armada marked a victory for the Protestants • If Philip had won, he could have destroyed the Protestant movement throughout Europe

42. Route of the Armada

43. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) • Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) • The largest and deadliest of the wars of religion • Was a true international war as it contained multiple players: • The Holy Roman Empire • Spain • France • Sweden and Demark • Both the Protestants and the Catholics had begun making defensive alliances earlier in the century • This increased religious tensions in the Empire

44. Religious breakdown of Europe in 1618

45. Phases of the War • The Thirty Years’ War is divided into four phases • While the war starts mainly on religious grounds, as time goes on it takes more of a political air • At first the war is Protestants versus the Catholic HRE Ferdinand II • However, as time goes on, more countries get involved because they were fearful of Ferdinand’s growing power • They were afraid it would upset the fragile balance of power • By the time of the last phase, religion is not involved at all • It was clearly a political war between the French and the Habsburgs • Whoever won the last phase would be the champion of Europe

46. Ferdinand II • King of Bohemia (1617–1619 and 1620–1637) • Holy Roman Emperor (1619-1637)

47. Bohemian Revolt (1618-1625) • This phase of the war takes place completely in Germany • It is also based primarily on religion • Bohemia at the time was a mostly Protestant population • Around 65% were a mix of Calvinists, Lutherans, and Anabaptists • Even though the ruling minority was Catholic, earlier kings had made concessions to the Protestants • This was mainly due to the economic importance of Bohemia • In 1609, Emperor Rudolf II granted a Letter of Majesty • This basically granted freedom of religion throughout Bohemia • Throughout the reign of King (and later Emperor) Matthias (1611-1617), Bohemia enjoyed religious diversity and peace

48. Bohemian Revolt (1618-1625) • Troubles began when Ferdinand Habsburg was elected King of Bohemia in 1617 • Ferdinand quickly ended all concessions made to the Protestants • He set up a regent government that was mainly Catholic • Laws were enforced forbidding Protestants from holding office • Protestants were fearful of losing their religious liberties • They appealed to Ferdinand but the requests fell on deaf ears • On May 23, 1618, a group of Protestants kidnapped two of the king’s Catholic advisors at the royal palace in Prague

49. Bohemian Revolt (1618-1625) • A mock trial was held and the advisors were found “guilty” of violating the Letter of Majesty • As punishment, the advisors along with their secretary were thrown out of the window 70 feet off the ground • Catholics say that the officials survived because of the intervention of the Virgin Mary • Protestants knew the real reason: they landed in a huge pile of manure • This event is known as the Second Defenestration of Prague • This began the Bohemian Revolt and the Thirty Years War

50. Defenestration of Prague (May 23, 1618)