Wing- kwong Tsang

1. EDM 6210Education Policy and SocietyLecture 5Education Policy and Social Integration: Dialectic of Education for Nationality and Citizenship Wing-kwong Tsang

2. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • To recapitulate, in previous lectures… • The state is conceived as a sovereign power apparatus (legitimate monopoly of use of physical force), which has successfully established over residents of a definite territory. It is the “engineering” outcome of a power-steering system and/or struggle between power-steering systems. • The nation is conceived as a community of sentiment, which emerges “spontaneously” from frequent communications among residents of a territory. It is the “practical” outcome of the lifeworld built on common-languages and territory.

3. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • To recapitulate, in this course… • However, human history especially in the past five centuries has witnessed many different forms of dialectical relationship between these two types of human groupings. For example…

4. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • For example • Monarchy-state over nations in France and subsequently republic-state (Jacobin-state) over nations in France • The state of the United Kingdom over nations in the British Isles • Migrant-states over natives in American continents and Australia • Empire-states over nations, e.g. Ching Empire over nations in China, and subsequently modern republic-state over nations in China • Nazi- and Fascist-states over nations in Germany and Italy • Sovereign states gaining independence from former colonizers and striving to build national sentiment of solidarity among various ethnic groups

5. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Are nation modern? Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives in the studies of nation • The first theoretical dichotomy consists of: (Calhoun, 1994, 1997, Jenkins, 2008) • Essentialism: Essentialism approaches identity as essentials or attributes, which are naturally endowed or structurally determined. This perspective takes gender identity, national identity or class identity as given facts and preexisting reality. Hence, the formations of identities are conditioned, shaped, or determined by sets of essentially fixed traits, such as biological sex, skin color, birth place, position in relation of production, etc.

6. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives … • The first theoretical dichotomy … • Constructionism: Constructionism approaches identity as socially constructed reality, which are negotiable and maneuverable. They are on the one hand collectively constituted in social process or even social movement, and individually constructed in deliberately presentations and articulations

7. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives … • The second theoretical dichotomy is made up of (Smith, 1986; Gellner, 1997) • Primordialism: Primordialism tends to attribute the basis of identity to some essences that are in-born, inherited from ancestoral past, or accumulated through cultural tradition within a given social entity. These primordial ties may include kinship tie, consanguineous bondage, homeland boundedness, or connections to some traditional mythomoteur (myth-symbol complex).(Smith, 1986, Pp. 57-68).

8. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives … • The second theoretical dichotomy is made up of (Smith, 1986; Gellner, 1997) • Instrumentalism or Modernism: It approaches identity as psycho-social phenomena grown out of functional requisite or instrumental necessity of a given social system. For instance, sentiment of solidarity or even readiness to scarify shared among members of the colonized nations in fighting for independence against the colonizers are instrumental in national liberation movement; or sense of commonality and cooperation permeated among members of industrialized and urbanized society are functional to the complex division of labor in industrial capitalism.

9. Instrumentalism/ Modernsim • Citizenship identity • National identity Essentialism Constructionism • Ethnic identity • Familial identity Primordialism

10. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Max Weber’s conception of the ethnic group • Definition: “We shall call ‘ethnic groups’ those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and migration; this belief must be important for the propagation of group formation; conversely, it does not matter whether or not an objective blood relationship exist. Ethnic membership differs from the kinship group precisely by being a presumed identity, not a group with concrete social action, like the latter.” (Weber, 1978, p. 289)

11. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Max Weber’s conception of the ethnic group • Having analyzed a list of contributing factors to the formation of ethnic group, Weber comes to the conclusion that “All in all, the notion of ‘ethnically’ determined social action subsumes phenomena that’s rigorous sociological analysis …would have to distinguish carefully……. It is certain in this process the collective term ‘ethnic’ would be abandoned, for it is unsuitable for a really rigorous analysis. …The concept of the ‘ethnic’ group…dissolves if we define our term exactly.” (Weber, 1978, p. 394-395)

12. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Max Weber’s conception of the ethnic group • Ambiguity in distinguishing the notions of ethnicity and nationality: • “The concept of ‘nationality’ shares with that of the ‘people’ (Volk) — in the ethnic sense — the vague connotation. …In reality…persons who consider themselves members of the same nationality are often much less related by common descent than are persons belonging to different and hostile nationalities. Differences of nationality may exist even among groups closely related by common descent, merely because they have different religious persuasions, as in the case of Serbs and Croats.” (Weber, 1978, p. 395)

13. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Max Weber’s conception of the ethnic group • Ambiguity in distinguishing the notions of ethnicity and nationality: … • “A common language is also insufficient in sustaining a sense of national identity. …Many German-speaking Alsatian feel a sense of community with the French because they share certain custom and some of their ‘sensual culture’ …and also because of common political experiences.” (Weber, 1978, p. 396)

14. Alsace: Border region between France and Germany

16. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Anthony Smith’s thesis on The Ethnic Origins of the Nation (1986) Anthony D. Smith, one of the prominent scholars in the studies of nationalism and ethnicity professing in London School opf Economics specifies his conception of ethnie (ethnic group) with the following points:

18. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Anthony Smith’s thesis … • Definition of ethnie: “We arrive at the following definition of the term ethnie: ‘a named human population with myths of common ancestry, shared historical memories, one or more elements of common culture (e.g. religion, custom or language), a link with a homeland and a sense of solidarity among at least some of its members.’” (Hutchinson & Smith, 1996, p. 6)

19. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Anthony Smith’s thesis … • Main features/dimensions of ethnie: “Ethnie habitually exhibit, albeit in varying degrees six main features: • a common proper name, to identity and express the ‘essence’ of the community; • a myth of common ancestry, a myth rather than a fact, a myth that includes the idea of a common origin in time and that give an ethnie a sense of fictive kinship, what Horowitz terms a ‘super-family’ (Horowitz, 1985: ch.2); • shared historical memories, or better, shared memories of a common past or pasts, including heros, events, and their commemoration;

20. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Anthony Smith’s thesis … • Main features/dimensions of ethnie: “Ethnie habitually exhibit, albeit in varying degrees six main features: • one or more elements of common culture, which need not be specified but normally include religion, custom, or language; • a link with homeland, not necessarily its physical occupation by the ethnie, only its symbolic attachedment to the ancestral land, as with diaspora peoples; • a sense of solidarity on the part of at least some sections of the ethnie’s population (Smith, 1986, ch.2)

21. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Anthony Smith’s thesis … • The cultural-symbolic nature of the social phenomenon called ethnie: Anthony Smith underlines that “We are dealing with the sense of common ethnicity rather than any ‘objective’ ethnic reality. For the purposes of the analysis that follows, such reality’ as we shall impute to ethnie is essentially social and cultural: the generic features of ethnie are derived, less from ‘objective’ indicators like fertility, literacy or urbanization rates (important though these are in given circumstances), than from the meaning conferred by a number of men and women over some generations on certain cultural, spatial and temporal properties of their interaction and shared experiences..” (Smith, 1986, P. 22)

22. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Anthony D. Smith’s typology of nation-formation in Europe: With reference to his conception of ethnie, Smith has distinguish induced two models of nation formation from European experiences • The territorial-civic model: It refers mainly to the developmental experiences in nations in Western Europe, such as France, England (letter Britain), Spain, Sweden, and Holland.

23. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Smith’s …two models of nation formation • The territorial-civic model: ….These nations are formed on numbers of territorially based building blocks: (Smith , 1986, Pp. 134-140) • Territorially centralized and coordinated bureaucratic states, • Territorially coordinated economy and more specifically capitalistic market • Territorially integrated cultural system and more specifically territorially centralized or even standardized educational system As a result, the sense of solidarity derived from residents of these territories is kind of legal, political and latter social citizenship.

24. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Smith’s …two models of nation formation • The primordial-ethnic model: It refers mainly to the developmental experiences in nations in Eastern Europe, such Polishes, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Bulgarians, Rumanians, Ukrainians, and Greeks. Most of these nations were under imperial rules by empires such as the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Tsarist Empire in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Under these external and imperial rules, these nations turn inversely to their primordial solidarities, such agrarian sedentarization, religious orthodox, dialects, etc.

25. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity and ethnification: Conception from the periphery • Oommen’s definition of ethnie and ethnicity: “An ethnie is a collectivity, members of which share a common lifestyle, history and language, but whose identification with its ancestral homeland is weak or endangered. Ethnicity, then, is a product of attenuation between territory and culture. If an ethnie aspires to and succeeded in establishing a moral claim over the territory to which it has migrated, and with which it identifies as its homeland, it becomes a nation.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 45)

27. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity … • Conception of ethnification: “Ethnification is a process through which the link between territory and culture is attenuated, and the possibility of a nation sustaining it integrity is put into jeopardy.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 13)

28. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity … • Types of ethnification: • Native Indians in American continent and native Australian (aborigines) in Australia: “A nation may continue to be in its ancestral or adopted homeland and yet it may be ethnifiied by the colonizing or native dominant collectivity.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 13) • Natives in multinational-states in former USSR, PRC, and many independent states from former colonial states in Africa and Asia, e.g. Public of India and South Africa: “Ethnification …occurs when a state attempt to ‘integrate and homogenize the different nations in its territory into a common people.” (Oommen, 1997, p.15)

29. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity … • Types of ethnification: • Chinese and Indian migrant labor settled in Malaysian peninsula: Migrants, who have settled in colonial and subsequent independent states, are ethnified by the majority nation, as in the case of the Federation of Malaysia, or by the state-formation project as in the case of the Republic of Singapore. • Ethnification in the United States of America and Australia: In republic dominated by migrant nations, ethnification is commonly or even indiscriminately to all “nations”. In the US, citizens are commonly ethnified as Anglo-Americans, Asian-Americans, Afro-Americans, or Native-Americans

30. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity … • Types of ethnification: • Ethnification can be conceived as a two-way process: All the previous examples are external ethnification imposed by state apparatus. Ethnification may be generated from within, that is, natives or migrant groups having settled in home countries for decades or even centuries may deliberately ethnified themselves in order to constitute ethnic identify, solidarity or even residential and occupational communities.

31. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • T.K. Oommen’s conception of ethnicity … • Typology of ethnification

32. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Institutionalization of democratic-civic model of modern nation-state: History of Institutionalization of constitutional-democratic states and civil-democratic citizenship in the past two centuries has made the territorial-civic model become the ideal-typical model of nation-state formation in different parts of the globe. As globalization spread, ethnic-sedentarization communities are forced to transcend its primordial bases and be integrated political community based on solidarity of citizenship participation and practice.

33. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Institutionalization of democratic-civic model of modern nation-state: Through the institutions of constitutional-democratic state, residents within the territory of a sovereign state are entitled to participate on equal bases in political affairs as well as in socio-cultural and economic activities. Through these equal-participatory practices of citizenship, it is anticipated (as Habermas advocates) that a modern nation in the form of community of sentiment (or even community of prestige) of equal entitlement of citizenship

34. Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality within Modern Nation State • The empirical paradox among ethnicity, nation and state • “Most countries today are culturally diverse. According to recent estimates, the world's 184 independent states contain over 600 living language groups, and 5,000 ethnic groups. In very few countries can the citizens be said to share the same language, or belong to the same ethnonational group.” (Kymlicka, 1995, P. 1)

35. Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality within Modern Nation State • The empirical paradox … • “The distinction between states and nations is fundamental to my whole theme. States can exist a nation, or with several nations, among their subjects, and a nation can be coterminous with the population of one state, or be included together with other nations within one state, or be divided between several states. There were states long before there were nations, and there are some nations that are much older that most states which exist today. The belief that every state is a nation or that all sovereign states are national states, has done much to obfuscate human understanding of political realities. A state is a legal and political organization, with the power to require obedience and loyalty from its citizens. A nation is a community of people, whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, a common culture, a national consciousness. Yet in the common usage of English and of other modern languages these two distinct relationships are frequently confused.” (Seton-Watson, 1977, P.1)

36. Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality within Modern Nation State • JurgenHabermas’s conception and nationality • In light of the two historical or even historic movements taken place at the end of the twentieth century, namely the German unification and constitution of the European Union, Habermas suggests a thesis to reconcile the structural contradictions among states, nations and ethnic groups and the identity conflicts among citizenship, nationality and ethnicity.

37. Synthesis: … • JurgenHabermas’s conception and nationality • Re-conceptualization of the nation • Classical meaningof the notion of nation: In its “classic usage , …nations are communities of people of the same descent, who are integrated geographically in the form of settlements or neighborhoods, and culturally by their common language, customs and traditions, but who are not yet politically integrated in the form of state organization.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 22)

38. Synthesis: … • Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality • Re-conceptualization of the nation … • Meaning of nation in the 21st century: “The meaning of the term ‘nation’ thus changed from designating a pre-political entity to something that was supposed to play a constitutive role in defining the political identity of the citizen within a democratic polity. …The nation of citizens does not derive its identity from common ethnic and cultural properties but rather from the praxis of citizens who actively exercise their right. At this juncture, the republican strand of ‘citizenship’ parts company completely from the idea of belonging to a pre-political community integrated on the basis of descent, a shared tradition and a common language.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 23)

39. Synthesis: … • JurgenHabermas’s conception and nationality • Two types of nationality: In connection of the new conceoption of nation, Habermas makes a distinction between two types of nationality • Hereditary nationality, which is identity built on elements such as common descent, custom, language or even ancestral homeland. They are ascribed from one’s traditional-cultural heredities • Acquired nationality, which is identity and commitment individual citizens who consciously strive to achieve collectively in the preview of civil-democratic citizenship and constitutional-democratic state. Therefore, Habermas proposes that hereditary nationality should give way to acquired nationality. (Habermas, 1994, p. 23)

40. Synthesis: … • T.K. Oommen’s conclusion • On the pessimistic part, “given the above, it is unrealistic to expect that a common civilization which embraces the multiplicity of nations and ethnies will emerge even in a distant future; it is a wrong agenda to be pursued.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 243) • On the optimistic part, “one must recognize the role of citizenship as an instrument that can reconcile the two identities of nationality and ethnicity and the competing demands of equality and identity.

41. Sovereign power Multi-ethnic States Citizenship Schooling & Education Acquired Nationality Territorial-civic Nationalism Sovereign Power Modern Nation-State Primordial-Ethnic Nationalism Schooling & Education Hereditary Nationality Ethnicity Languages Religions Customs Descent Ancestoral Homeland

42. Universal Education as Means of Integration in Modern Nation-State • Universal education as part of project of state formation and citizenship development • Universal provision of education as the primary basis of equality of future citizens of modern state • Universal education as means of construction of identity of citizenship • Entitlement to universal provision of equal education as citizenship rights to literate and intellectual developments as well as equal opportunities to socio-economic developments • Participation in universal provision of equal education as citizenship obligation to participate in common socio-cultural activities of the modern state

43. Universal Education as Means of Integration in Modern Nation-State • Universal education as part of the project of nation formation and nationality development • Universal education as means to nurture common language of communication among future citizenship • Universal education as means of construction of identity of acquired nationality • Universal education as means of construction of identity of hereditary nationality • Education as part of the project of de-ethnification and national homogenization: Universal education as means to integrate ethnic identities into identity acquired nationality

44. The Constituents of Education for both Nationality and Citizenship

46. Development of Citizenship Education in HK • Citizenship-education in the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War (1948-56) • HK Government’s initiatives in civic education in 1948 • Special section – “Education for Citizenship” - in ED annual report • Training courses on teaching civics • Introducing a new subject – Civics into the Hong Kong School Certificate examination in 1948. • Complying subjects/refugees under the British colonial rules • No rocking of the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War

47. Development of Citizenship Education in HK • Citizenship-education in the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War (1948-56) The syllabus for Civics in the Hong Kong School Certificate examination consisted of the following subjects: (1) introduction; (2) our community; (3) how it is governed; (4) public health; (5) housing; (6) communications; (7) education; (8) other public services; (9) livelihood; (10) work; (11) industry; (12) money; (13) insurance; (14) the press; (15) politics; (16) war and peace; and (17) the future.

48. Development of Citizenship Education in HK • Citizenship-education in the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War (1948-56) Our Community: “The community in which we live. ... Hong Kong connected racially with China and politically with Britain" (The Hong Kong School Certificate Syndicate, 1950, p.47).

49. Development of Citizenship Education in HK • Citizenship-education in the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War (1948-56) How it is Governed: "Order is the first condition of happy and prosperous community. ... Laws are intended to protect rather than to punish. General description of the British system of justice, and how it differs from that of China" (p. 48)

50. Development of Citizenship Education in HK • Citizenship-education in the lifeboat on the high tide of the Cold War (1948-56) The Press: “The primary function of a democratic press is to give full and fair information, and to criticize public affairs within the bounds of justice and good taste. Freedom of the press is safeguarded by law. Its abuse is restricted by the law of libel. What happens when the press become corrupt or falls under the control of one political party, or the state.” (p. 49)