Dr. Hassan Arafat Department of Chem. Eng. An-Najah University

1. Energy and Environment Introduction to Environmental consequences of large scale energy generation – Part II Dr. Hassan Arafat Department of Chem. Eng. An-Najah University (these slides were adopted, with modification, from Ms. Paulina Bohdanowicz , KTH Institute, Sweden)

2. Potential causes of concern associated with fossil fuels • Coal • Global climate change, acid rain, environmental effects of open-cast mining, land subsidence due to deep mining, ground water pollution, mining accidents, health effects on miners • Oil • Global climate change, air pollution by vehicles, acid rain, oil spills, oil rig accidents • Natural gas • Global climate change, methane leakage from pipes, methane explosions, gas rig accidents Source: Boyle et al. 2003

4. The recent decline and rise in China's reported coal use has been attributed largely to variations in data collection and not to severe fluctuations in actual consumption.

5. The recent decline and rise in China's reported coal use has been attributed largely to variations in data collection and not to severe fluctuations in actual consumption.

6. Oil – global currency

7. Includes crude oil, shale oil, oil sands, and natural gas liquids (the liquid content of natural gas where this is recovered separately). Excludes liquid fuels from other sources such as coal derivatives.

10. Average personal oil consumption

15. 1992-2003 data exclude natural gas that was flared or recycled.

17. Coal • the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation that originally accumulated as plant material in swamps and peat bogs • 400 millions yrs ago (the Devonian period) – start of the formation of large coal deposits • 350-280 million years ago (the Carboniferous period) significant accumulations of coal in the Northern Hemisphere • 350-225 million years ago (the Carboniferous/Permian period) in the Southern Hemisphere • approximately 100-15 million years ago(the late Cretaceous period to early Tertiary era) in the USA, South America, Indonesia and New Zealand • …and now we are releasing all the carbon stored and contained in it Source: World Coal Institute, Coal Power for Progress, www.wci-coal.com, 2005

18. Coal • ‘metamorphism’ or coalification undergone by a coal • peat • => lignite • => sub-bituminous • => bituminous • => anthracite • Influences its physical and chemical properties, and is referred to as the ‘rank’ of the coal Source: WCI 2005

19. Coal cycle • Mining • Transport • Processing • Combustion Source: WCI 2005

20. Impact assessment of mines • before a mine opens, exhaustive studies of the immediate environment are carried out to define the existing conditions and to identify sensitivities and potential problems • the studies address the impact of mining on factors such as surface and ground water, soils, local land use, and native vegetation and wildlife populations • the findings are reviewed as part of the process leading to the award of a mining permit by the relevant government authorities • a detailed rehabilitation or reclamation plan is designed and approved for each mine, covering the period from the start of operations until well after mining has finished Source: WCI 2005

21. 2. Surface mining (50%) lignite seams (25%) are most often surface-mined economic only when the coal seam is near the surface more coal recovered 1. Underground mining (50%) Anthracite seams (less than 10% of world coal production) 65-75% of coal recovered Mining Bituminous seams (approximately 65%) are mined in roughly equal proportions by both methods Source: WCI 2005

22. 2. Surface Mining Contour Strip Mining Area Strip Mining Open-pit Mining Auger Mining 1. Underground Mining Room-and-pillar Mining Long-wall Mining Short-wall Mining Thick-seam Mining Mining Source: WCI 2005

23. Strip mining and land recovery Source: WCI 2005

24. technological factors the number of seams, the thickness and steepness of each seam, the nature and thickness of the strata overlying the seams, the quality of the coal seams, the surface topography, the surface features, the transportation networks available economic factors energy demand and its growth, the supply and cost of alternative sources of energy, coal quality and the cost of coal preparation, the selling price of coal, advancements in technology that affect costs of production, environmental legislation Choice of mining method Source: WCI 2005

25. social factors prior history of mining in the area, ownership patterns, availability of labour, local or regional government support Choice of mining method Source: WCI 2005

26. Extraction – underground mining • Land subsidence • Underground mine fires • Air pollution • Fugitive emissions of particulate matter and gas (SO2, NOx, H2S, CH4) • Particulates => respiratory diseases: chronic bronchitis, asthma • Gaseous emissions => global warming, health hazards to local population • Methane emissions depend on the mining methods, depth of coal mining, coal quality and entrapped gas content in the coal seams Source: WCI 2005

27. Extraction – underground mining • Water pollution • the carry-over of the suspended solids in the drainage system of the mine stamp water and storm-water drains • acidic water found in the underground aquifers • waste-water from the coal preparation plant and mine water • Discharge of effluents (alkaline compounds, acid drainage, salty waters, heavy metals) • Waste materials (tailings) Source: WCI 2005

28. Extraction – surface mining • Vegetation clearance => erosion of soil • Altering the drainage patterns • Particulates • Waste materials (tailings) Source: WCI 2005

29. Oil • oil deposits - located almost exclusively in sedimentary rock and often associated with certain geological structures • oil - usually found trapped in a layer of porous sandstone, which lies just beneath a dome-shaped or folded layer of some non-porous rock such as limestone • in other formations the oil is trapped at a fault, or break in the layers of the crust

30. Oil locations - Alaska

31. Petroleum Cycle Combustion Transport Extraction Refining Derivatives Pipelines Tankers Exploration Processes: 0,11 % Onshore Offshore Well Development Production Drilling Primary Completion Secondary Tertiary

32. Extraction – oil drilling • On-shore or off-shore • Drilling procedures similar but rigs are different • four main offshore rig types: • Submersibles are able to go down to 50m, • Jack-Ups can go down to 110m, • Semi-submersibles can go to 610m and • Drillships up to 1680m

33. Extraction – oil drilling • Exploration • the search for rock formations associated with oil deposits, and requires geophysical prospecting and/or exploratory drilling • seismic survey, geophysics and geology • Well Development • Drilling • Well Completion

34. Extraction – oil drilling – drilling fluid • sent down the drill pipe to allow the drill to rotate • essential for cooling of the drill bit and the rock, bringing loose chunks of rock up to the surface, prevention of cave ins and losses of mud into the formation being drilled • properties required depend upon the drilling conditions • a gas or foam, • liquid-based fluids (drilling muds) - more extensively used • usually contain bentonite clay (that increases the viscosity and alters the density of the fluid), & additives • 3 general categories of drilling muds: • water-based – most frequently used, • oil-based, • synthetic-based.

35. Extraction - drilling • Production • bringing the fluid to the surface, separating liquid and gas components and removing impurities • Primary • Secondary • Tertiary • Maintenance • Well Abandonment

36. Vegetation clearance (roads or drilling sites) = Soil erosion Seismic waves Spills and blowouts Combustion gases Direct wastes Indirect wastes Extraction - drilling

37. Direct Wastes drilling mud (high concentrations of Cd, As, Hg, HC) produced water from cooling (contaminated with Cl, Na, Ca, Mg, K, organic compounds, various metals, off shore drillings - high saline concentrations), high BOD sand (particulates, oil, wastes, metals) cleaning fluids for water (acids, Na, Ca, Cl and CO3) corrosion inhibitors, paint fumes and cleaning solvents => acidification => oxygen depletion Extraction - drilling

38. Potential material outputs from the well development process • Air emissions • Fugitive natural gas, other VOCs, PAHs, CO, CO2, H2S • Waste water • Drilling muds, organic acids, alkalis, diesel oil, crankcase oils, acidic stimulation fluids (HCl & HF – hydrofluoric acid) • Residual waste • Drill cuttings (some oil-coated), drilling mud solids, weighting agents, dispersants, corrosion inhibitors, surfactants, flocculating agents, concrete, casings, paraffins Source: Protecting Our Environment: An Environmental, Health and Safety Report from the Oil and Natural Gas Industry, American Petroleum Institute (API), Consumer Information, December 21 2000

39. Potential material outputs from the production process • Air emissions • Fugitive natural gas, other VOCs, PAHs, CO, CO2, H2S, fugitive BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene) from natural gas conditioning • Waste water • Produced water: heavy metals, radionuclides, dissolved solids, oxygen-demanding organic compoundsd, high level of salts • May contain additives including biocides, lubricants, corrosion inhibitors • Waste water: glycol, amines, salts and untreated emulsions • Residual waste • Sand, elemental sulphur, spent catalysits, separator sludge, tank bottoms, used filters, sanitary wastes Source: API 2000

40. Potential material outputs from the maintenance process • Air emissions • Volatile cleaning agents, paints, other VOCs, hydrochloric acid gas • Waste water • Completion fluid • Waste water: well-cleaning solvents (detergents & degreasers), paints, stimulation agents • Residual waste • Pipe scale, waste paints, paraffins, cement, sand Source: API 2000

41. Potential material outputs from the abandoned wells, spills & blowouts • Air emissions • Fugitive natural gas, other VOCs, PAHs, particulate matter, sulphur compounds, CO, CO2 • Waste water • Escaping oil and brine • Residual waste • Contaminated soils and sorbents • risk of filtration and underground water contamination Source: API 2000

42. Waste – appr. 1000 tonnes per well - impact on ecosystems Offshore drilling: suspended solids - a danger for bottom-dwelling and critical ocean-bottom habitats a wide range of health and reproductive problems for fish and other marine life the threat of oil spills that would devastate wildlife populations destruction of kelp beds, reefs and coastal wetlands Extraction - drilling Source: Committee Against Oil Exploration

43. Over its lifetime, a single oil rig can: Dump more than 90 000 metric tons of drilling fluid and metal cuttings into the ocean Drill between 50-100 wells, each dumping 11 tonnes of toxic metals, such as lead, chromium and mercury, and potent carcinogens like toluene, benzene, and xylene into the ocean. pollute the air as much as 7000 cars driving 80 km a day. Extraction - drilling Source: Committee Against Oil Exploration

44. Extraction European Environment Agency (EEA), Europe’s environment: the third assessment, Environmental assessment report, no.10, European Community, Copenhagen 2003 Source: EEA 2003

45. Processing - coal • Run-of-mine coal contains a mixture of different size fractions, sometimes together with unwanted impurities such as rock and dirt • Coal preparation/beneficiation – processing of raw run-of-mine coal into a range of clean, graded and uniform coal products suitable for commercial market • coal cleaning (crushing, separation of fractions, washing, milling and solvent refining) • upgrading (decrease of moisture content), • blending (mixing coals from different sources to achieve acceptable quality, at lower cost), • bioprocesses (microbial desulphurisation) • If coal of high quality – only crushed & screened Source: WCI 2005

46. Processing - coal • Effective preparation of coal prior to combustion: • improves the homogeneity of coal supplied, • reduces transport costs, • improves the utilisation efficiency, • produces less ash for disposal at the power plant, • and may reduce the emissions of oxides of sulphur. Source: WCI 2005

47. Coal Storage in stock piles Particulates emission Water used for preparation Effluents (water, chemicals & particulates) Loss of coal to waste Disposal of waste Coal processing - impacts Source: WCI 2005

48. Chemical composition of crude oil Constituent Quantity Sulphur 2.44% by weight Nitrogen 0.14% by weight Nickel 7.7 ppm Vanadium 28 ppm Naphtha fraction 22.7% by weight (boiling pt.from 20 to 205° C) High boiling fraction 77.3% by weight (boiling pt. above 205° C) Aromatics 23.3% by weight Paraffin 20.9% by weight Insoluble 3.5% by weight Source: EPA 2001

49. Oil processing - refining

50. Derivatives from one barrel of crude oil Product Gallons per barrel Gasoline 19.5 Distillate Fuel Oil 9.2 Kerosene-type jet fuel 4.1 Residual fuel oil 2.3 Liquefied Refinery Gases 1.9 Still Gas 1.9 Coke 1.8 Asphalt and Road Oil 1.3 Petrochemical feed stocks 1.2 Lubricants 0.5 Kerosene 0.2 Others 0.3 Note: Figures are based on 1995 average yields for U.S. refineries. One barrel contains 42 gallons of crude oil. The total volume of products made is 2.2 gallons greater than the original 42 gallons of crude oil. It represents ‘processing gain’. Source: EPA 2001