Types of Proof and Strategies of Argumentation

1. Types of Proof and Strategies of Argumentation

2. Traditional Categories • Aristotle • Distinguishes between proof that can be produced and “laid on the table” (murder weapon, fingerprints, etc) and proof that is invented and represents the creative thinking and insights of clever and intelligent people

3. Second Category • The latter of the types mentioned encompasses the appeals we’ve discussed previously • Logical proof—appeals to people’s reason/common sense (most important according to Aristotle) • Proof that establishes ethos—appeals to audience’s impressions, opinions, and judgments about the individual stating the argument. Author’s establish fair-mindedness, good character, etc. • Emotional Proof—used to appeal to and arouse the feelings of the audience. Accomplished through emotional language, examples, personal narratives, etc

4. Logical Proof • Facts. Opinions, reasons based on reality (drawn from experience) • Argument from Sign • Argument from Induction • Argument from Deduction • Argument from Historical/Literal/Figurative Analogy • Argument from Definition • Argument from Statistics • Argument from Authority

5. Argument from Induction • A number of specific examples is provided from which a claim is drawn • A generalization is made on the basis of the example • IOW: An inductive argument uses examples to lead into a claim or generalization about the examples

6. Argument from Deduction • Leads from a general principle, applies it to an example, a draws a conclusion • P1:All persons have X, P2:Bill is a person--------------------- C: Bill has X

7. Proof for building Ethos • Argument from Authority: we are usually inclined to accept the opinions and factual evidence of people who are authorities and experts in their fields.

8. Emotional Proof • Motivational Proof: urge audience to take prescribed steps to meet an identified need • Value Proof: Appeals to those things audiences are expected to value (honesty, equality, freedom, etc.)

9. Strategies for Argumentation • Illustration • Narration/Description • Refutation • Comparison • Contraries

10. Explained • An illustration is an extended example used to support/make a point • A refutation argument is used to disprove someone else’s argument while at the same time advocating an alternative • Using contraries shows how two opposite ideas combine or interplay with each other to express some idea or truth (night/day, good/bad, etc)

11. Let’s look at p. 169 in your textbook • In groups of 4, complete Activity 15 on p. 174