The Vietnam War

1. The Vietnam War Out of Many Chapter 29 Pages 1050-1060 & 1078-1088

2. Early American Involvement in Vietnam Although little was known about Vietnam in the late 1940s & early 1950s, American officials felt Vietnam was important in their campaign to stop the spread of communism

3. Vietnam’s History • French colony, sought independence in the early 1900s • Several political parties formed during the reform • One of the leaders of the nationalist movement was Ho Chi Minh • Became an advocate of communismafter his travels to the USSR • 1930, formed the Indochinese CommunistParty • Worked to overthrow the French • Exiled to the USSR & China • 1941, Japan had control of Vietnam • Minh had returned from exile • Formed the nationalist group Vietminh (Communist & non-Communist) to force Japan out

4. Vietnamese Fight for Independence • 1945, Allies defeat Japan in WWII & Vietnam declares independence • France sent in troops to regain control • France asked US for help • American officials didn’t agree w/ French controlling Vietnamese, but also didn’t want the country to be Communist either • US, under Truman & Eisenhower, supported the French military • Truman felt that the fall of China to communism & the Korean war was enough evidence that Asia was falling to communism • Eisenhower defended the US policy in Vietnam with the Domino Theory • The belief that if Vietnam fell to communism, other nations in Southeast Asia would do the same

5. The Vietminh Drive Out the French • Despite aid from the United States, the French struggles against the Vietminh • Guerrilla tactics were frequently used • Irregular troops who usually blend into civilian population and are difficult for regular armies to fight • Used hit-and-run and ambush tactics • 1954, Dien Bein Phu, site where French commander was forced to make peace & withdraw from Indochina • Negotiations to end the conflict, called the Geneva Accords, divided Vietnam between the Vietminh (North) and a pro-Western regime (South) • Accords also recognized Cambodia’s independence • 1956, elections were held to form a single gov’t • US stepped in to protect the new gov’t in the South led by Ngo Dinh Diem • Tensions between North & South Vietnam escalated w/ the US caught in the middle…..

6. American Involvement Deepens • After Diem refused to hold nat’l elections, Minh created a new guerrilla army know as the Vietcong • Goal was to reunify North & South • US continued to send aid to the South • Vietcong’s power continued to grow becausemany Vietnamese opposed Diem’s gov’t • Unpopularity increased due to Diem’scorrupt gov’t • Strategic hamlets: special fortified villagesprotected by machine guns & various otherweaponry • Discriminated against Buddhism • Diem was overthrown and later executed • Further weakened South’s gov’t forcing the US to become more involved • After JFK’s assassination, Johnson inherited the problem

7. Johnson & Vietnam • At first, Johnson was cautious, yet was determined to prevent South from becoming Communist • Politically, Democrats needed to keep South from being communist, or the Republicans would use it against him • August 2, 1964 – Johnson announced the North torpedo boats fired on 2 American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin, then another similar attack occurred 2 days later • Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: authorized the president to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack on US forces • IMPORTANCE: congress had given its warpowers to the president • Vietcong began attacking bases whereAmerican advisers were stationed in theSouth • February 1965, Johnson sent aircrafts toattack the North • March 1965, troops increased

8. A Bloody Stalemate • 1965, some 180,000 American combat troops were fighting in Vietnam • Number doubled by 1966 • Many Americans believed theycould win Vietnam • To take Vietcong's hiding placesaway, American planes droppednapalm and Agent Orange (chemicalthat strips leaves from trees &shrubs) • Americans underestimated Vietcong’s strength, stamina, & morale • Johnson refused to order a full invasion, fearing China would get involved • As American causalities increased, many Americans questioned the US’s involvement in the war

9. The US was also never entirely successful in shutting down the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a supply line that ran between North and South Vietnam via difficult jungle terrain, often underground and through neighboring nations like Cambodia

10. A Growing Credibility Gap • When American troops first entered the Vietnam War, many Americans supported the military effort • As the war in Vietnam continued to drag on, public support decreased • Leading commander continually said that the enemy was almost defeated • Reports on television… • Americans began to question the gov’t and believed a credibility gap had developed • Made it difficult to believe what LBJ’s administration said about the war

11. An Antiwar Movement Emerges • As the casulaties increased, Americans, especially college students, began to publicly protest the war • March 1965, University of Michigan • Faculty & students abandoned their classes and formed a teach-in where they informally discussed issues of the war & why they opposed it • Triggered teach-ins at many other colleges • Many protesters focused on why they thought the draft was unfair • College students could delay military service • Low-income & limited education were called to serve • Minorities, especially African Americans, were called to war • Many draftees refused to serve; some moved to Canada

13. Hawks & Doves • By 1968, the nation seemed divided into two camps • Doves: wanted the United States to withdraw from the war • Hawks: felt the United States should stay and fight

14. 1968: The Pivotal Year • January: During Tet (the Vietnamese New Year), the Vietcong launched a surprise attack known as the Tet offensive • Guerilla fighters hit American airbases in the South as well as the South’s major cities & capitals • Militarily, the attack was a disaster. Politically, the approval ratings of Minh increased • April: MLK Assassinated

15. 1968: The Pivotal Year • 1968 Presidential elections • Doves: Eugene McCarthy & Robert Kennedy (RFK assassinated in May) • Johnson withdrew from the race in March • Democrats: Hubert Humphrey • Republican: Nixon – promised to regain order in Vietnam • Independent: Governor George Wallace (AL) • Johnson attempted to help the Democratic party by proposing a cease-fire, Humphrey lost by more than 100 electoral votes & Nixon became president

16. Nixon Moves to End the War • Nixon chose Harvard professor Henry Kissinger to be special assistant for national security affairs • Nixon began Vietamization – gradual withdrawal of American troops, allowing South to assume more of the fighting • As peace negotiations were underway, Nixon increased air strikes against North to maintain American strength

17. Turmoil at Home Continues • War continued to stir up protests and violence in the US • More stories… • 1968, an American platoon under the command of Lt. William Calley massacred 200+ South Vietnamese civilians in the hamlet of My Lai • Most of the victims were old men, women, & kids • April 1970, US troops entered Cambodia • Purpose was to destroy Vietcong military bases • Americans saw this as an expansion of the war • Same year, Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

18. Kent State - Timeline • Thursday, April 30 • Nixon announces to the nation about invading Cambodia • Friday, May 1 • About 500 students lead a protest on the Commons • Planned another protest for the 4th • Later, fights break out in bars & vandalism occurs • Saturday, May 2 • City officials receive threats • Mayor calls Governor & requests that the Natl’l Guard be sent in • ROTC building burned; arsonists never caught • Police & Firemen hit with rocks • Saturday, May 2 (con’t) • Students slash fire hoses • Nat’l Guard made numerous arrests & used tear gas; one student slightly wounded w/ bayonet • Sunday, May 3 • Gov. called protesters “Un-American” • Some students went downtown to help w/ cleanup • Curfew set into place • Sit-in in the streets; wanted meeting w/Mayor & college president • Guards enforced curfew; a few students bayoneted

19. Kent State Massacre • Monday: protest was scheduled to be held at noon • University officials tried to cancel the event by passing out flyers • 2,000 gathered anyways on the Commons • Nat’l Guard came in to break up the rally • Protestors responded by throwing rocks, so guard retreated • Guard returned & ordered dispersal; used tear gas when most of the crowd refused • No effect – Too windy! • Rock throwing began again • Students threw the tear gas canister back at the guards • Shots fired by 29 of the 77 guardsmen • Total of 67 shots taken in approx. 13 seconds (though some report it was longer) • Unclear as to why the shooting began in the first place • 4 killed & 9 wounded • Also known as the May 4 Massacre

21. Pentagon Papers • Leaked by Defense Dept. worker, Daniel Ellsberg • Secret document showed that many gov’t officials had privately questioned the war while publicly defending it • Also showed how the various administrations deceived the public about Vietnam

22. United States Pulls Out of Vietnam • By 1971, nearly 2/3 of Americans wanted the war to be over • Nixon had been waiting for the North to evacuate the South before signing a peace treaty, but decided to quit waiting • A month before presidential elections, announced that peace was at hand – Nixon won by a landslide

23. Peace Talks • Negotiations broke down when South’s president Nguyen Van Thieu refused any plan that left North troops in the South • US began a bombing campaignthat eventually led to theresumption of peace talks • January 27, 1973 – both sidesagreed to end the war & restorepeace • Never resolved what would happen with South… • After eight years of fighting, the US ended its direct involvement in Vietnam

24. Not Over Yet…. • March 1975, North Vietnamese army launched a full-scale invasion of the South • Theiu asked the US for assistance • New president, Gerald Ford, went to Congress for approval • April 30, NorthVietnamesecaptured Saigon,united Vietnamunder Communistrule, and renamedthe city Ho Chi Minh City

25. The Legacy of Vietnam • Cost = over $170 billion • 58,000 soldiers died • Many soldiers who made it homefaced psychological problems • Some families left uncertain aboutPOWs and MIAs • 1973 – War Powers Act • Reestablished limits on executive power • Required the president to inform Congress of any commitment of troops abroad w/in 48 hours • Troops had to be withdrawn in 60-90 days unless Congress approved the troop commitment • The war increased American cynicism about their gov’t & made them question their leaders

26. The Growth of the Youth Movement • 1960s = one of the most chaotic decades in US history • During the 60s, a youth movement developed that challenged American politics, its social system & the values of the time • No other time in history has witnessed such a protest

28. Roots of the Movement • Movement actually began in the 50s • Nation had a boom in its economy that not all Americans enjoyed • Some writers were openly criticizing American society • Dramatic increase in college enrollment • Gave opportunities to share feelings & fears • Concern about future led many to join in civil rights movement or the Peace Corps • Newfound sense of freedom & independence

29. Students for a Democratic Society • Formed by students concerned about injustices in political & social issues • Also called the SDS • Views were written in the 1962 declaration known as the Port Huron Statement • Written by Tom Hayden, editor of the student newspaper at University of Michigan • Called for an end to apathy • Urged citizens to shop accepting a country run by corporations & big gov’t • Group focused on protesting the Vietnam War, but also addressed issues like poverty, campus regulations, nuclear power & racism

30. The Free Speech Movement • Led by a group of activists at the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley • Leader was Mario Savio • Staged a sit-in at the administrationbuilding • Around 700 protestors were arrested • Triggered a campus-wide strike whichstopped classes for 2 days • Administration gave in to student’sdemands • Supreme Court upheld the students’rights to freedom of speech & assemblyon campus • IMPORTANCE: The Berkeley revolt became the model for college demonstrations around the country

31. The Counterculture • Some young Americans did not challenge the system • Instead, they created their own society • The counterculture, or hippies, weremostly white youths from middle- andupper-class backgrounds • Lived a life that promoted flamboyantdress, rock music, drug use, & free/independent living • Ideals that society was free, closer to nature, & full of love, empathy, tolerance, and cooperation • As the movement grew, newcomers didn’t understand the roots • Focused on the outward signs of the movement • Long hair, Native American headbands, shabby jeans, & drugs were common

32. Decline of the Counterculture • Began to decline as some hippie communities became a place where criminal activity was common • Drug use declinedas the excitementfaded & as morepeople becameaddicted or diedfrom overdoses

33. A Weakened Women’s Movement • A new feminist movement had begun in the 1960s, though it had originally begun as early as the 1920s • Feminism is the belief that men and women should be equal politically, economically, and socially • During WWII, many women joined the nation’s workforce as many men went off to fight • Those same women lost their jobs when the men returned • Women gradually returned to the workforce • By 1960, made up almost 1/3 of the workforce

34. Women’s Movement Groups • League of Women Voters • Promoted laws to protect women & children • Limiting the hour they could work • National Women’s Party (NWP) • Opposed protective legislation for women • Thought it reinforced workplace discrimination • Introduced the first Equal Rights Amendment in Congress • Forbade local, federal, and state laws from discriminating on the basis of gender • Because the women’s movement was divided, Congress could afford to ignore the legislation at the time

35. The Women’s Movement Reawakens • By the early 1960s, women became increasingly resentful of old stereotypes & the protest for equality increased • President’s Commission on the Status of Women • Group headed by Eleanor Roosevelt • Urged JFK to study the status of women • Found problems in the workplace • Helped create feminist networks who lobbied Congress • 1963, Equal Pay Act was passed • Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act outlawed job discrimination • Importance: became the legal basis for the women’s movement • Attitudes about what kinds of work were proper for women took time to change • The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) still held that jobs could be distinguished by gender

36. Betty Friedan & The Feminine Mystique • Friedan travelled around the country interviewing women who had graduated with her from Smith College in 1942 • Friedan found that while women reported that they had everything they could want, they still felt unfulfilled • 1963, the book stirred up women all over the country & became a best-seller • June 1966, Friedan felt it was time for a national women’s organization to promote women into mainstream America • National Organization for Women (NOW) • Responded to many issues facing women, including greater educational opportunities & denouncing the exclusion of women from certain professions

37. Women’s Movement: Successes • Greater equality in the educational system • Legislation banned sex discrimination in education • Title IX: prohibited federally funded schools from discriminating against girls in nearly all aspects of their operations, from admissions to athletics • States adopted liberal abortion laws regarding a woman’s mental health or in the case of rape or incest • 1973, Roe v. Wade ruled that state gov’t could no longer regulate abortion during the first 3 months of pregnancy • Ruled it was the time of a women’s constitutional right to privacy • Gave rise to the right-to-life movement • More women pursuing college degrees & careers outside the home • Employers began to offer family-friendly options to their employees • By 2000, over 40% of Americans graduating with law or medical degrees were women

38. Women’s Movement : Failures • 1972, Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) • Protected against discrimination basedon gender • In order for it to became part of theconstitution, 38 states had to ratify it • Opposition to the ERA began to growas many saw it as a threat to traditionalAmerican values & social patterns • Phyllis Schlafly, was one of the mostvocal critics of the movement,organized the national Stop-ERA campaign • Amendment failed to be ratified by 38 states& died in 1982

39. Nixon’s Presidency:New Federalism Program • Nixon’s constituency also favored dismantling a number of federal programs and giving more control to state & local gov‘ts • Called this New Federalism • Congress passed a series of revenue-sharing bills that provided federal funds to state & local agencies • Though it was intended to give those agencies increased power, it actually led to a greater dependency on federal funding • For programs he didn’t like, Nixon would impound (refuse to release) the funds – Supreme Court later deemed unconstitutional • 1969, Nixon proposed replacing Aid to Families with Dependant Children (AFDC) welfare program with the Family Assistance Plan • Give needy families a guaranteed yearly grant of $1,600 • Won House approval, but not Senate • Never passed

40. Nixon’s Foreign Policy • Nixon’s administrations main focus • Henry Kissinger • Former Harvard professor • Chose as national security adviser • Attempted friendlier relations with the Soviet Union & China • Nixon was anti-communist, but came to reject he idea of a bipolar world w/ the US & USSR confronting each other • Created the approach of détente, or relaxation of tensions between the US & its two major Communist rivals • Nixon argued that the US had to build a better relationship w/ its rivals to ensure world peace

41. International Relationships • To ease tensions w/ china, Nixon lifted trade & travel restrictions • Also, withdrew the Seventh Fleet from defending Taiwan • February 1972, Nixon to a historic trip to China • Both leaders agreed to better relations between the nations

42. International Relationships • USSR suggested an American-Soviet summit, or high-level diplomatic meeting, in May of 1972 • Nixon became the first president to visit the USSR • Signed the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) • Purpose was to limit nuclear arms • Agreed to increase trade & the exchange of scientific information

43. The Roots of Watergate • The Watergate scandal began as the Nixon administration attempted to cover up its involvement in the break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters • Watergate, along w/ other illegal actions, occurred during Nixon’s re-election campaign • Nixon had become defensive, secretive, & resentful of his critics • Worried he might not get re-elected because of Vietnam • Nixon & his team looked for ways to gain an edge anyway they could in an effort to win re-election

44. June 17, 1972 • 5 Nixon supporters broke into the Democratic Party’s headquarters • Purpose was to locate campaign info & install wiretaps on telephones • Burglars discovered by a security guard & arrested • James McCord, one of the burglars, was an ex-CIA official & a member of the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CRP) • Most Americans believed the president when he claimed he had no involvement in the break-in • He went on to win re-election in 1972

45. The Cover-Up Unravels • As the questions about the break-ins began, the cover-up started • Though it is thought hat Nixon did not order the break-in, it is believed that he did order the cover-up • 1973, the Watergate burglars went on trial • Defendant James McCord agreed to cooperate with the grand jury investigation • Testimony created a floodgate of confessions • Officials & White House staff exposed illegalities • John Dean leveled allegations against Nixon • Testified that Attorney General John Mitchell had ordered the break-in & Nixon was active in its cover-up

46. Executive Privilege • July 16, White House aidetestified that Nixon had • ordered a taping systeminstalled in the WhiteHouse to record allconversations to helphim write his memoirsonce he left office • Tapes were sought by all groups investigating the scandal • Nixon refused to hand over the tapes • Pleaded executive privilege

47. VP Resigns • Fall 1972, Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign • Discovered he had taken bribes from state contractors while he was governor of MD • Republican leader of the House of Representatives, Gerald Ford, became the new VP

48. Hand Them Over! • Nixon released edited transcripts of the tapes in April 1974, claiming they proved him innocent • Investigators went to court to force him to turn over the unedited tapes • The House Judiciary Committee voted to impeach on charges of presidential misconduct • Supreme Court ruled Nixon had to turn the tapes over to the court • One tape, known as thesmoking gun, had evidencethat Nixon had ordered theCIA to stop the FBI’sinvestigation of the break-in

49. Resignation • Days later, on August 9th, Nixon officially resigned from office • Gerald Ford became the 38th president • First president to take office that was not voted into the office of VP or President

50. The Impact of Watergate • Watergate prompted the implementation of several new laws limiting the power of the executive branch & reestablishing a greater balance of power • The Federal campaign Act Amendments limited campaign contributions • The Ethics in Government act required financial disclosure by high gov’t officials in all three branches of gov’t • The FBI Domestic Security Investigations Guidelines restricted the bureau's political intelligence-gathering activities • Watergate left American’s distrustful of public officials • Many felt that it proved that in the US, no one is above the law