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Sociology of education

Sociology of education. SCLY2 The Specification. 1 The role and purpose of education, including vocational education and training, in contemporary society. • Functionalist and New Right views of the role and purpose of education: transmission of values, training workforce.

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Sociology of education

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  1. Sociology of education

  2. SCLY2 The Specification. 1 The role and purpose of education, including vocational education and training, in contemporary society. • Functionalist and New Right views of the role and purpose of education: transmission of values, training workforce. • Marxist and other conflict views of the role and purpose of education: social control, ideology, hegemony; ‘deschoolers’ (Illich, Friere): socialisation into conformity by coercion. • Vocational education and training: the relationship between school and work: human capital, training schemes, correspondence theory. 2 Differential educational achievement of social groups by social class, gender and ethnicity in contemporary society. • Statistics on educational achievement by class, gender and ethnicity; trends over time. • Social class and educational achievement: home environment; cultural capital, material deprivation; language (Bernstein); school factors, relationship between achievement by class in education and social mobility. • Gender and educational achievement: feminist accounts of gender-biased schooling; the concern over boys’ ‘underachievement’ and suggested reasons; subject choice; gender identities and schooling. • Ethnicity and educational achievement: patterns; reasons for variations; multicultural and anti-racist education; experience of minorities in different types of schools. • The relationship between class, gender and ethnicity. • The effects of changes on differential achievement by social class, gender and ethnicity. 3 Relationships and processes within schools, with particular reference to teacher/pupil relationships, pupil subcultures, the hidden curriculum, and the organisation of teaching and learning. • School processes and the organisation of teaching and learning: school ethos; streaming and setting; mixed ability teaching; the curriculum; overt and hidden. • The ‘ideal pupil’; labelling; self-fulfilling prophecy. • School subcultures (eg as described by Willis, Mac an Ghaill) related to class, gender and ethnicity. • Teachers and the teaching hierarchy; teaching styles. • The curriculum, including student choice. 1

  3. 4 The significance of educational policies, including selection, comprehensivisation and marketisation, for an understanding of the structure, role, impact and experience of education. • Independent schools. • Selection; the tripartite system: reasons for its introduction, forms of selection, entrance exams. • Comprehensivisation: reasons for its introduction, debates as to its success. • Marketisation: the 1988 reforms – competition and choice; new types of schools (CTCs, academies, specialist schools, growth of faith schools). • Recent policies in relation to the curriculum, testing and exam reforms, league tables, selection, Special Educational Needs (SEN), etc. • Recent policies and trends in pre-school education and higher education. 5 The application of sociological research methods to the study of education. This may be taught either integrated with the content listed above, or at the end of study of the topic, or by a combination of both approaches: • Quantitative and qualitative data in education; the dominance of statistics (eg exam results, league tables). • Positivist and interpretivist approaches as applied to education. • Issues, strengths and limitations and examples of the application to the study of education of the main sources of data studied (see Sociological Methods section): o questionnaires o interviews (formal/structured; informal/unstructured) o participant and non-participant observation o experiments o use of documents, official statistics and other secondary data • The theoretical, practical and ethical considerations influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and the conduct of research on education. 2

  4. Theory – summary. • From a Functionalist perspective, education performs the following functions: • Developing and reinforcing social solidarity; • Providing the skills and knowledge required for a specialised division of labour; • Developing value consensus and preparing young people for adult roles; • Assessing young people in terms of their talents and abilities and allocating them to appropriate roles in the wider society. • 2. From a Marxist perspective, education: • Transmits ruling class ideology; • Prepares pupils for their role in the workplace; • Legitimises inequality and disguises exploitation; • Rewards conformity and obedience; • Reproduces new generations of workers, schooled to accept their place in capitalist society. • 3. From a feminist perspective, education has promoted, and to some extent still does promote, male dominance by, • the use of gendered language and gender stereotypes; • leaving women out from the curriculum – concentrating more on men; • Defining certain subjects as ‘girls’ subjects’ and others as ‘boys’ subjects’; • Discriminating against female students in terms of grammar school, further and higher education places. 6

  5. Theory – summary. • 4. From a Social Democratic perspective, education: • should provide every young person with an equal chance to develop their talents and abilities; • this will benefit society as a whole by producing economic growth; • however, social class is a barrier to equality of educational opportunity. • 5. According to neo-liberal / New Right perspectives, the role of education is to instil drive, initiative and enterprise. This will come from: • competition between schools and colleges; • motivating teachers to improve standards; • providing parents and students with a choice of schools and colleges. 7

  6. Emile Durkheim 1858-1917 He wrote Moral Education (1961) Functionalist Perspective A structuralist, macro approach to the role of education in society. KEY CONCEPT: Social solidarity SUMMARY OF THEORY: * A major function of education is transmission of society’s norms and values. * Without similar attitudes in people, social life would be impossible. * Education, particularly the teaching of history, provides links between the individual and society. Children will come to see that they are part of something larger than themselves they will develop a sense of commitment to the social group. * School makes children learn to co-operate with other members of society besides friends and family, it is like a mini society. * Education also teaches children skills for their future roles. RESEARCH METHOD: this was what we call ‘Armchair theorising’ because Durkheim didn’t actually carry out empirical research…he was simply expressing his opinion based on his functionalist beliefs. WEAKNESSES: Durkheim assumes the norms and values transmitted by the education system are those of society as a whole, rather than those of a ruling elite or ruling class. 11

  7. Talcott Parsons He wroteThe school as a social system (1961) Functionalist Perspective A structuralist, macro approach to the role of education in society. KEY CONCEPTS: Focal socializing agency; particularistic and universalistic standards; ascribed/achieved status; meritocracy; role allocation. SUMMARY OF THEORY: [ School acts as a bridge between the family and society, preparing children for their adult roles. [School prepares children for the transition between their particularistic standards and ascribed status of the family to the universalistic standards and achieved status of society. [Status is achieved on the basis of merit (or worth). [ Advanced, industrial society requires a highly motivated, achievement-orientated workforce. By using the principle of differential reward for differential achievement, this value is instilled in a society. [ Schools match children to occupations based on aptitude and achievement. RESEARCH METHOD: this was what we call ‘Armchair theorising’ because Parsons didn’t actually carry out empirical research, he was simply expressing his opinion based on his functionalist beliefs. WEAKNESSES: The idea of meritocracy is undermined by the statistical patterns which show that not all children have equal chances of success. Like Durkheim, Parsons fail to recognise that the value consensus may be that of the ruling elite. 12

  8. MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS ON FUNCTIONALIST THEORIES OF THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY. 1 Read Item A below and answer parts (a) to (d) that follow. Item A According to functionalists, the education system encourages open competition while giving everyone an equal chance to succeed. As a result, all pupils can show what they are capable of achieving and what kind of future work role they are best suited for. The system is then able to provide each child with an education appropriate to their talents and to fit each individual with the knowledge, skills and attitudes they will need in their adult role. Functionalists see this as having two main advantages. For the individual, it allows social mobility and rewards people according to their ability, not their social background. For society, it promotes a successful economy by ensuring each job is filled by someone with the appropriate talents. This leads to higher living standards for everyone. (a) Explain what is meant by differential reward for differential achievement. (2 marks) (b) Suggest three criticisms that could be made of Functionalist views of education. (6 marks) (c) Outline the ways in which education integrates individuals into society’s shared culture. (12 marks) (d) Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that the function of the education system is to select and prepare individuals for their future work roles. (20 marks) MQP(i)

  9. Louis Althusser He wrotefor marx. 1969. Perspective Marxist A structuralist, macro approach to the role of education in a capitalist society. KEY CONCEPTS: ideological state apparatus. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * In modern society the education system has largely replaced the church as the main agency for ideological control. * The ruling class cannot hold power for long simply by the use of force. Ideological control through influencing the way people think, is the most effective way for the ruling class to maintain power over the subject class. * Schools transmit an ideology which states that capitalism is just and reasonable. * Schools prepare pupils to accept their future exploitation. * Pupils who become managers and decision makers through their qualifications which legitimate their power over others. RESEARCH METHOD: this was what we call ‘Armchair theorising’ because Althusser didn’t actually carry out empirical research, he was simply expressing his opinion based on his Marxist beliefs. WEAKNESSES: his work lacks empirical support. 13

  10. Bowles & Gintis They wroteSchooling in capitalist america. 1976. Marxist Perspective A structuralist, macro approach to the role of education in a capitalist society. KEY CONCEPTS: Correspondence principle; hidden curriculum; subservient workforce; acceptance of hierarchy; ‘jug and mug’ principle; fragmentation; myth of meritocracy; motivation by external rewards. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * There is close correspondence between the ways in which people and children are treated in the workplace and the school. This is to get children used to their future exploitation. It achieves this through the hidden curriculum. * By maintaining power over children, teachers are training children to become a subservient and docile workforce who will not challenge the power of capitalism. * The fragmentation of the school day and subjects corresponds to the fragmentation of the workforce. By keeping workers unaware of the overall running of a business, they cannot use this knowledge to set up in competition. RESEARCH METHOD: they conducted a study based on 237 members of the senior year in a New York high school. WEAKNESSES: Trunacy rates and behavioural issues show children are not docile and unquestionning. Also, can we apply findings of the American education system to the British one? 14

  11. Paul Willis He wrotelearning to labour. 1979. (humanist) Perspective Marxist A structuralist, macro approach to the role of education in a capitalist society. However, Willis used a micro approach to examine experiences of school. KEY CONCEPTS: counter-school culture; shop-floor culture; penetrations. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * There isn’t a simple relationship between the economy and the education system; students are active participants – some of whom chooseto fail. * ‘The lads’ formed their own friendship group which had a counter-school culture which was against the values of the school and doing well. They focused on ‘having a laff’ to cope with the boredom they felt at school & in work. But they clearly just try to cope with tedium and oppression instead of actively challenging it. RESEARCH METHOD: As well as drawing upon Marxist sociology, Willis used some of the research techniques of interactionism and micro theory. His ethnographic method used observation in class, recorded discussions, informal interviews and diaries. He focused on 12 working class lads in their last 18 months at school and their first few months at work. WEAKNESSES: unrepresentative sample size which focuses only on male experiences. 15

  12. MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS ON MARXIST THEORIES OF THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY. 1 Read Item A below and answer parts (a) to (d) that follow. Item A Marxist sociologists believe that the primary role of education is simply to reproduce the existing class system. However, they disagree as to how this occurs. For example, Bowles and Gintis believe that it is the product of the hidden curriculum and the correspondence principle, namely that schooling in capitalist society mirrors the world of work. By contrast, Paul Willis believes that working-class pupils end up in working-class jobs because they actively reject the values of the school. Another Marxist, Pierre Bourdieu, argued that reproduction occurs because the middle class possess cultural capital, which they are able to turn into educational success because schools are themselves middle class institutions. Although Bourdieu can be described as a Marxist, there are similarities with Bernstein’s ideas about the role of restricted and elaborated speech codes in producing unequal educational achievement. (a) Explain what is meant by cultural capital. (2 marks) (b) Suggest three criticisms that could be made of Marxist views of education. (6 marks) (c) Outline the ways in which schooling in capitalist society may mirror the world of work. (12 marks) (d) Using material from Item A and elsewhere assess the different functions that the education system may perform for individuals and society, according to Marxism. (20 marks) MQP(ii)

  13. Ball, Bowe & Gerwitz. Competitive advantage & parental choice. 1994. Their focus was to examine the effects of parental choice and competition between schools on the education system and opportunities for students from different social groups. “My teacher said that the school has tough new standards and I need to improve my vocabulary. What’s vocabulary?” • KEY CONCEPTS: privileged/skilled choosers, semi-skilled choosers, disconnected choosers. • FINDINGS OF STUDY: • The use of school league tables, open enrolment & formula funding (bums on seats) had a number of consequences for education. This was because schools wanted to attract and select more ‘able’ students to boost their place on the table and their reputation. • “There is a shift of emphasis from student needs to student performance, from what the school can do for the students to what the students can do for the school.” • Shift in values from comprehensive and social justice to market values, money and reputation. There was also suspicion and hostility between schools now. • They examined parental choice and found that it was limited by availability of schools and ability of parents (in terms of their motivation and money). • Found three types of parents when it came to choosing schools: • i) Privileged/skilled choosers – had strong motivation and skills to fight for the ‘best’ school, had money to move to catchment area or pay for private school. More than likely to be middle class with university education. • ii) Semi-skilled choosers – strong motivation but little ability to ‘engage with the market’. Lack social contacts & cultural skills to fight for the best choice. Less likely to appeal if their children are rejected from their first choice. More thank likely to be working class and to choose local school. • iii) Disconnected choosers – not involved & don’t see it as important, more than likely to choose the nearest school. More concerned with their children’s happiness than their academic performance. More likely to be working and underclass. • RESEARCH METHOD: conducted surveys of 15 schools in 3 neighbouring Local Education Authorities (LEAs). Mix of LEA controlled schools, grant maintained schools, two church schools & a City Technology College. There was a mix of middle and working class schools and areas of high to no ethnic variety. Attended meetings, interviewed head teachers, parents and teachers. Examined a variety of documents about patterns of choice. 55

  14. MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS ON NEW RIGHT THEORIES OF THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY. 1 Read Item A below and answer parts (a) to (d) that follow. Item A Writers from a New Right perspective have suggested that giving more power to schools and to parents will help drive up standards as schools compete to provide a better service. This means allowing schools to decide their spending priorities and allowing them more control over what type of pupils they admit. They propose giving more power to parents so that they can force schools to be more responsive to parents’ wishes. They point to the academic success of many private schools and suggest that this is due to the fact that they are answerable to their customers, the parents. Alternatively, Gewirtz (1995) suggests that increased competition between schools has mainly benefited middle-class pupils and parents because they have the means to gain access to the best schools. This means that the more academically successful schools attract middle-class parents and pupils who have cultural and material advantages. (a) Explain what is meant by marketization? (2 marks) (b) Suggest three criticisms that could be made of New Right views of education. (6 marks) (c) Outline some of the policies introduced by governments to create an education market in the United Kingdom. (12 marks) (d) Using material from Item 1C and elsewhere, assess the extent to which policies of encouraging competition between schools and increasing parental choice have improved the achievement of working-class pupils. (20 marks) MQP(iii)

  15. Differential achievement SOCIAL CLASS – summary. • Class, ethnicity and gender make a difference to educational attainment. Class makes the greatest difference. • The following explanations have been given to explain why pupils with working class backgrounds are less successful: • a) Material deprivation – a lack of money and the things that money can buy (extra tuition, books, trips etc); • b) A lack of encouragement, stimulation and interest from parents that probably had negative experiences of education. • c) Working-class subculture with its emphasis on fatalism, present-time orientation and immediate gratification. • d) Cultural deprivation – an absence of the norms, values and skills needed for high attainment. This view has been strongly criticised. • e) The use of the elaborated speech code in schools which disadvantages many working class pupils; • f) A lack of cultural capital. According to Diane Reay, it is mothers who have the main influence on their children’s education. Their effectiveness largely depends on the amount of cultural capital at their disposal. Middle class mothers have most. • g) A lack of social capital. Ball’s research argues that social capital is vital when choosing schools. Middle class mothers with wide social networks, have most. • h) In general, students with larger amounts of cultural and social capital will choose to attend the more prestigious universities. • i) Middle-class pupils are more likely to be placed in higher streams, working-class pupils in lower streams. In general, research indicates that streaming and setting have little or no affect on pupils’ achievement. However, they may raise attainment in the top groups and lower it in the bottom sets. • j) What does have an effect is a tendency to enter more working-class pupils for lower level exams, so denying them the opportunity to obtain the top grades. 16

  16. JWB Douglas He wrote the home and the school. 1964. Longitudinal Perspective JWB Douglas was interested in the effect of social class on educational attainment. KEY CONCEPTS: Parental interest. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * He found that children from lower working class backgrounds were less likely to stay on at school while more affluent children were more likely to take their A levels. * He related educational success to student’s health, size of family and quality of the school. Poorer children are more likely to come from big families, attend poorer schools and to be less healthy. * Middle class parents were more likely to encourage their children to succeed and socialize them more effectively to achieve in education. RESEARCH METHOD: Longitudinal study of 5,362 children born in the first week of March 1946, which continued until they were 16 in 1962. Participants were divided into groups in terms of their ability which was measured by IQ tests. They were sub-divided into four social class groups. WEAKNESSES: IQ tests are unreliable, cultural capital misrepresents ability of working class children, high drop out rate common in longitudinal studies. 19

  17. Barry Sugarman He wrote social class, values and behaviour in schools. 1970. Longitudinal Perspective Barry Sugarman took a sub-cultural approach to the study of the relationship between class and education. KEY CONCEPTS: fatalism; immediate gratification; present-time orientation; deferred gratification; collectivism. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Because middle class occupations provided more opportunity for advancement (promotion), such families had an attitude of deferred gratification. Their children were therefore socialized into these values and did better in school as they valued long-term goals. * Working class socialization emphasised present-time orientation and immediate gratification as their work did not allow the same opportunities for advancement. Therefore working class children didn’t have the attitude to stick with education and wanted to earn money instead. They were more focused on collectivism (through parents’ Trade Union involvement), than individual achievement. RESEARCH METHODS: used interviews & questionnaires. WEAKNESSES: social class differences in response to interviews & questionnaires may not reflect what happens in ‘real life’. 20

  18. Basil Bernstein He wrote social class & linguistic development. 1961. Perspective He used an experimental approach to make links between language and educational achievement. KEY CONCEPTS: elaborated code; restricted code. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * He found that working class children tended to speak in a restricted code which had limited expression and implicit meaning. It also had limited grammatical complexity, vocabulary & are a kind of short-hand speech. * Middle class children tended to use the elaborated code is more detailed and the meanings are more clear through the use of more specific vocabulary. * Because education relies on an elaborated code as its common mode of communication, working class children are disadvantaged in terms of their understanding & expression. * Middle class jobs tend to demand the use of more elaborated codes while working class jobs, often manual do not rely on verbal expression or complex language. RESEARCH METHOD: one method was when he used two 5 year old boys to explain a series of four pictures. WEAKNESSES: the method is hardly representative. Rosen argues Bernstein has a very simplistic approach to class. There is little sound evidence for his claims. 21

  19. Pierre Bourdieu He wrote the school as a conservative force. 1974. He had a Marxist perspective towards the education system and saw it as an agent of social control for the benefit of capitalism. Perspective KEY CONCEPTS: cultural capital; cultural reproduction. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Bourdieu argued that working class failure is the fault of the education system and not working class culture. The education system is biased towards the culture of the dominant social classes and devalues the knowledge and skills of the working class. * The possession of the dominant culture by an individual is referred to as cultural capital because, via the education system, this can be translated into wealth and power. (Success in education = superior qualifications = professional and powerful occupations/careers). RESEARCH METHOD: the theory of cultural capital was developed on a theoretical, therefore non-empirical basis, by Bourdieu and his colleagues at the Centre for European Sociology in Paris. WEAKNESSES: this theory does not have any empirical basis as Bourdieu’s work was purely theoretical. 22

  20. Diane Reay Class Work; Mothers’ Involvement in Their Childrens’ Primary Schooling. (1998). Perspective Reay used the concept of ‘cultural capital’ in the more practical setting of primary education. KEY CONCEPTS: cultural capital; material capital. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Reay found that “it is mothers who are making cultural capital work for their children”. She found that the amount of cultural capital possessed by middle class mothers meant that their children succeeded more in education that their working class peers. Reay ascribes this to cultural capital. * Middle class mothers had the knowledge and skills to help their children more effectively with homework and to challenge the school and negotiate with teachers for the benefit of their children. * Middle class mothers could afford to have domestic help (giving them more time for their children) and pay for private tutors. RESEARCH METHOD: Reay interviewed mothers of 33 children at two primary schools in London. STRENGTHS: Provides the empirical support for Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory. WEAKNESSES: Based on a London sample of the mothers of a relatively small group; not representative of whole population. 23

  21. MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS ON DIFFERENTIAL EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT DUE TO SOCIAL CLASS. 1 Read Item A below and answer parts (a) to (d) that follow. Item A Most sociologists see material deprivation as a major cause of under-achievement. However, according to cultural deprivation theory, some working class and ethnic minority children fail because their parents do not socialise them into the appropriate norms, values and skills. For example, Douglas (1964) found that many working class parents were uninterested in their children’s progress and did little to support their education; they failed to attend parents’ evening, did not help them with their homework and did not read to them. As a result, such children are poorly equipped to take advantage of educational opportunities. For cultural deprivation theorists, government and educational bodies need to introduce policies to remedy the situation and give such children the chance to succeed. However, while cultural deprivation has been used to explain class and ethnic differences in achievement, most sociologists consider that when it comes to gender, other factors are more important, particularly as the pattern of achievement has changed rapidly in recent years, with girls now generally out-performing boys at all levels of schooling. (a) Explain what is meant by material deprivation. (2 marks) (b) Identify three features of the restricted speech code. (6 marks) (c) Outline some of the cultural differences between the classes that may explain class differences in achievement. (12 marks) (d) Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that working class underachievement in education is the result of home circumstances and family background. (20 marks) MQP(iv)

  22. Differential achievement GENDER – summary. • The educational performance of females has improved significantly since the 1980s. They have overtaken males at every level from primary to higher education. • Overall, the performance of males has also improved, but at a slower rate. • The following reasons have been suggested for the improvement in female performance: • a) Changes in attitudes – eg, increasing concern with financial independence for which they need a career and hence qualifications; • b) Changes in the labour market – more women in the workplace; • c) Changes in marriage – rising divorce rate and growth of lone-parent families further instil the idea that women need to be financially independent; • d) Changes within schools – eg, reduction of gender bias and more senior female teachers; • Changes in society – risk, uncertainty and individualisation all make girls think more about their lives and their prospects; they need to look out for themselves and give themselves the best chance to get on in life. • 4. The following reasons have been suggested for the relatively low attainment of boys, particularly some working class boys: • a) The threat to working class masculinity resulting from the reduction in traditional working class jobs and the growth in female headed families; • b) The development of an anti-school culture which rejects the values of the school and helps rebuild a masculine identity in a society in which they feel pretty useless, particularly as obsolete breadwinners in the family; • c) The spread of laddish behaviour as a response to the fear and shame of failure. 24

  23. Sue Sharpe She wroteJust Like a Girl. 1994 Feminism Perspective A structuralist, macro approach to the role of education in a patriarchal society. KEY CONCEPTS: Girls’ aspirations. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * The sample of girls interviewed in the 1970s expressed a preference for feminised jobs such as nursing and shop assistants and their roles as wives and mothers while the sample from the 1990s stated they were more career focused in traditionally male sectors. * Girls from the 1990s were also more focused on their financial independence from men and were more likely to see education as a means to this financial independence because it gives them greater opportunities to secure a career. RESEARCH METHOD: this was a longitudinal, comparative study which used an interview technique to elicit qualitative data. By using two samples from two different time periods, Sharpe was able to show how there had been changes in girls’ aspirations. WEAKNESSES: was her sample representative of the British population of young females? 27

  24. Mac an Ghaill He wroteThe making of men; masculinities, sexualities and schooling. 1994. Perspective Micro Because Mac an Ghaill used interviews to gather qualitative research, he has used a micro perspective. He does not seem to have a clear theoretical focus. KEY CONCEPTS: Crisis in masculinity; Laddism, the Three F’s, the New Enterprisers, the Real Englishmen, the Academic Achievers, the Macho Lads. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Mac an Ghaill found four subcultures of male students at the school he examined. * The ‘Macho Lads’ were into the three F’s, they also had a clear counter-school culture, not doing homework & answering back. The ‘Academic Achievers’ were mainly Asian or white from skilled working class homes who were ridiculed by others. The ‘New Enterprisers’ were focused on future jobs. * The ‘Real Englishmen’ had a superior attitude and felt they had to work very little to achieve high results. RESEARCH METHOD: an ethnographic study of a school, using interviews to gather qualitative data. WEAKNESSES: Not representative of the wider British population of male students. 28

  25. Mitsos and Browne They wrote an article in; Sociology Review; Volume 8. No 1. Secondary data Perspective Macro Mitsos and Browne analysed a range of secondary sources; other research and statistics. KEY CONCEPTS: Women’s movement; laddism. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Girls’ achievement has increased for a number of reasons including; women’s movement raising the expectations of girls, effort in schools to include girls in non-traditional subjects, increase in feminised service sector opportunities, girls’ greater maturity and motivation to do well. * Boys’ achievement has suffered because teachers may be less strict with boys, they are more disruptive (exclusion), laddism emphasises counter-school culture, decline in manual work, overestimation of their ability, non-academic leisure pursuits. RESEARCH METHOD: they analysed a wide range of secondary data, including statistics (quantitative data). WEAKNESSES: they sometimes fail to give references to the relevant research which makes it difficult to evaluate how well-founded their claims are. 29

  26. MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS ON DIFFERENTIAL EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT DUE TO GENDER. 1 Read Item A below and answer parts (a) to (d) that follow. Item A In general, girls now outperform boys in education. For example, girls are more successful in tests at 7, 11 and 14, and at GCSE. This continues at AS and A level, where girls do better than boys even in so-called “boys’ subjects”. For example, girls are now more likely than boys to gain A, B and C grades even in subjects such as maths, physics and chemistry. More females than males now enter higher education. Yet other gender differences remain. Girls are more likely to opt for languages, literature and social sciences at A level; on vocational courses, few boys opt for hairdressing and few girls choose construction. In addition, the everyday experiences of girls and boys in school can differ greatly. Both teachers and other pupils may apply unequal standards and expectations to the behaviour of girls and boys, and use different sanctions and forms of control when these expectations appear not to be met. (a) Explain what is meant by crisis in masculinity (2 marks) (b) Suggest three reasons which might explain why boys tend to do less well than girls in school. (6 marks) (c) Outline some of the reasons why gender influences subject choice. (12 marks) (d) Using material from Item 1A and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations of gender differences in education. (20 marks) MQP(v)

  27. Differential achievement ETHNICITY – summary. • There are significant differences in the educational attainment of ethnic groups. However, these differences change over time – eg, over the past 20 years – and vary from one level to another – eg, from secondary to higher. • The following factors outside the school have been seen to affect ethnic differences in attainment: • a) Social class – affects the attainment of all ethnic groups, but its influence varies from one group to the next. Ethnic minority groups are most likely to be working class. White students appear most affected by class. • b) Cultural factors – there is evidence that cultural factors, such as the value parents place on education and peer group subcultures, may partly account for ethnic differences in attainment. • 3. The following factors within schools have been seen to affect ethnic differences in attainment: • a) Racism – particularly directed against African Caribbean students; • b) Discrimination in setting; • c) Discrimination in everyday class interaction – there may be racist students. 30

  28. Differential achievement ETHNICITY – concepts. 31

  29. Cecile Wright Early Education: Multi-Racial Primary School Classrooms. (1992). Perspective Wright used an ethnographic method to investigate the issue of race in education. KEY CONCEPTS: ethnocentrism; labelling. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Despite the fact that “the vast majority of staff… seemed genuinely committed to the ideals of equality of educational opportunity”, Wright found many instances of discrimination in the classroom. * Many Asian children were excluded from group discussions because teachers assumed they wouldn’t understand the language. Asian girls received less attention and were treated with resentment on account of cultural differences; particularly in PE lessons. * Teachers expected Afro-Caribbean children to fail, were negatively labelled and criticised for behaviour exhibited by white children which was left unchallenged. RESEARCH METHOD: an ethnographic study of four multi-racial inner-city primary schools; observation of 970 pupils and 57 staff; interviews with staff and head teachers; interviews with parents of children and examination of test results in three of the four schools. STRENGTHS: extremely thorough method which provides representative empirical support. 32

  30. David Gillborn Race, Ethnicity and education: Teaching and Learning in Multi-Ethnic Schools. 1990. Gillborn used an ethnographic method to investigate the issue of race in education. Perspective KEY CONCEPTS: labelling. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * He found that the vast majority of teachers tried to treat students fairly. However, they interpreted the actions of Afro-Caribbean students as threatening and responded by punishing them. This leads to negative labelling which can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and ultimately, failure. * Afro-Caribbean students were more likely to be punished than white students for the same behaviours. * Gillborn found considerable tension between black students and white teachers. RESEARCH METHOD: Gillborn spend a total of two years studying an inner-city comprehensive school. He gathered qualitative data from carrying out classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers. WEAKNESSES: Unrepresentative sample; just studying one inner-city comprehensive school. 33

  31. Mac an Ghaill Young, gifted and black. 1988. Mac an Ghaill used an ethnographic method to investigate the issue of race in education. Perspective KEY CONCEPTS: counter-school culture; labelling. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Mac an Ghaill found that the system of streaming worked by putting boys into lower sets who were exhibiting poor behaviour; not poor ability. There was a disproportionate amount of Afro-Caribbean boys in the lower sets. * “There are boys of relatively high ability in the lower sets, especially among the West Indians. I’ve told you before Johnson and Brian were marvellous at Maths, especially problem-solving. But it’s their … it’s the West Indians’ attitude and that must decide it in the end. You can’t promote a boy who is known to be a troublemaker, who’s a dodger. It will look like a reward for bad behaviour.” (A teacher from the sample interviewed). * Mac an Ghaill found that many African-Caribbean students responded to this by forming a counter-school culture, called the ‘Rasta Heads’. This rejected the school’s norms and values and was clearly focused on race. RESEARCH METHOD: ethnographic study of a boys’ comprehensive school; interviews with pupils and teachers. WEAKNESSES: unrepresentative to use one school. 34

  32. Mac an Ghaill Coming of Age in 1980s England: Reconceptualizing Black Students’ Experiences. (1992). Mac an Ghaill used an ethnographic method to investigate the issue of race in education. Perspective KEY CONCEPTS: labelling; survival strategies. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * His research found that ethnic-minority students’ attitudes to education were influenced by their ethnic group, their gender and the class mix of their previous schools. * Students who had attended working class inner-city schools said their teachers had expected them to fail. * Gender was clearly an issue. “The teachers treated black boys much worse than Asians and whites. Like, if we were standing together, they would break us up, saying gangs were bad. But they didn’t seem to feel threatened in the same way with Asian and white boys.” * Some students felt teachers saw Asian girls as having more academic potential than Black girls. RESEARCH METHOD: an ethnographic study of 25 African-Caribbean and Asian students doing A levels in a sixth form college in the Midlands (1986-1988). Observation and interviews with students, parents and teachers. STRENGTHS: thorough method which attempts a multi-dimensional understanding (verstehen) of actors’ perspectives. 35

  33. Heidi Mirza Young, Female and Black. (1992). Mirza used a feminist approach to examine issues of racial identity among female students. Perspective • KEY CONCEPTS: myth of under-achievement. • SUMMARY OF THEORY: • Mirza argues there is a ‘myth of under-achievement’ for black women. The girls in her sample performed better in exams than black boys and white pupils. Educational achievements of women are under-estimated. Despite being negatively labelled by teachers, Mirza found the girls actively resisted the label and were not undermined. • Mirza identified types of teachers; ‘overt racists’; ‘the Christians’; ‘the Crusaders’ and ‘the liberal chauvinists’. There was also a small group of black teachers who showed no preference for any racial group. • RESEARCH METHOD: an ethnographic study of 198 young women and men, including 62 black women aged 15-19 who were the main focus of the study. She researched two comprehensive schools in south London. Mirza used classroom observation, questionnaires to obtain basic data, informal interviews with sample and parents. Also used school records and exam results. Also did three detailed case studies. • STRENGTHS: thorough method which attempts a multi-dimensional understanding (verstehen) of actors’ perspectives. • WEAKNESSES: assumes all white teachers are racist. 36

  34. Paul Connolly Racism, Gender Identities and Young Children. 1998. Connolly used an ethnographic method to investigate the issue of race in education. Perspective KEY CONCEPTS: teacher expectations. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Black boys were heavily criticised by teachers, seen as being in danger of turning into violent criminals. ‘Bad Boys’ based their behaviour on hyper-masculinity and gained status from their peers through toughness, football and kiss-chase. * Black girls were labelled by their teachers as only being good as sport and music. They were also seen as disruptive. The girls challenged poor behaviour towards themselves. * South Asian boys were seen as non-challenging and therefore passive and conforming. Peers saw them as feminised. They had a hard time gaining any peer status but teachers had high expectations of them. * South Asian girls were seen as the most obedient and hard working. Teachers expected them to get on with it without any support. High status in terms of academic achievement but low status among peer group – cultural differences meant they couldn’t be involved in kiss-chase. RESEARCH METHOD: an ethnographic study of 3 classes of 5-6 year olds in multi-ethnic primary school. Observations of lessons, interviews with parents, staff, governors, group interviews with children, examined secondary data. STRENGTHS: thorough method which attempts a multi-dimensional understanding (verstehen) of actors’ perspectives, also draws on secondary data from school. 37

  35. Tony Sewell Black masculinities and schooling. 1997. Sewell focused on a group of black students in a boys’ 11-16 comprehensive school. He wanted to investigate the relationship between family life, their identity, street life and how their schooling fitted in with all this. • KEY CONCEPTS: street culture, black masculinity, conformists, innovators, retreatists, rebels. • FINDINGS OF HIS STUDY: • There was a high proportion of the sample of black boys who were raised by a single mother. Sewell argued that, lacking the disciplinarian figure of a father, made these black boys more susceptible to peer group pressure. • Many were drawn into gang life which focused on an aggressive and macho form of masculinity which rejected authority from teachers and police and provided them with a ‘comfort zone’. Gangsta rap and fashion simply reinforces and validates their behaviour. • Sewell identified four types of black students; 1) Conformists – largest group, saw education as route to success; 2) Innovators – anti-school but tried to keep out of trouble; 3) Retreatists– loners who often had special educational needs; 4) Rebels – rejected education and felt rejected by racist attitudes in and out of school, they were confrontational and challenging and brought black street culture into school. • RESEARCH METHOD: qualitative – interviews. • WEAKNESSES: He has been accused of blaming black kids, their fathers and the black community for their underachievement while ignoring the role of racism in society. 38

  36. MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS ON DIFFERENTIAL EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT DUE TO ETHNICITY. 1 Read Item A below and answer parts (a) to (d) that follow. Item A According to Tony Sewell (1998), one reason for the under-achievement of black boys is labelling by teachers who hold racist stereotypes of the ‘black macho lad’. According to this stereotype, all black boys are anti-school and resentful of authority. Teachers see them as not equipped to learn and they leave school with few qualifications. However, Sewell found that only a small minority of black boys in fact belonged to such a ‘rebel’ subculture. Most either accepted the school’s goals or were opposed to the school but still wanted to achieve. Sewell also argues that factors outside school play a part in under-achievement. These include the absence of fathers in some black families and the image of the ultra-tough ghetto superstar put forward as a role model by commercial youth culture. (a) Explain what is meant by ethnocentric curriculum. (2 marks) (b) Suggest three examples of how the curriculum and / or the ways school is organised may be ethnocentric. (6 marks) (c) Outline some of the ways in which subculture can impact on the educational achievement of different ethnic groups. (12 marks) (d) Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations of ethnic differences in educational achievement. (20 marks) MQP(vi)

  37. Relationships and processes within schools – summary. • The hidden curriculum transmits messages to pupils which are not spelled out. It consists of ideas, beliefs, norms and values which are embedded in the normal routines and procedures of school life. • From a functionalist view, the transmission of society’s core values can be seen as part of the hidden curriculum. • From a Marxist view, social reproduction and the transmission of ruling class ideology are part of the hidden curriculum. • Pupil subcultures can reflect: • Neighbourhood subcultures; • Ability groupings within the school; • A combination of both. • 5. Pupil subcultures are influenced by: • Social class; gender and ethnicity. • 6. The way teachers define, classify and evaluate pupils can affect pupils’ behaviour and teacher –pupil relationships. • Teachers’ evaluation of and relationship with pupils is affected by their perception of pupils’ ability. • Teachers’ views of ability are affected by pupils’; • Social class; gender and ethnicity. • 9. There are two main types of teaching groups – ability groups and mixed ability groups. • 10. Research indicates that in general, ability groups, eg sets or streams, compared with mixed ability groups have no significant effect on overall attainment. • However, there is some evidence that higher ability groups increase attainment levels and lower ability groups decrease attainment levels. • The pressure in schools to improve exam results has led to an increase in setting. • Setting for exams can have a real effect on attainment – for example, placing students in sets for GCSE foundation tiers denies them any opportunity of achieving the higher grades. 39

  38. Relationships and processes within schools – concepts. 40

  39. Relationships and processes within schools – concepts. 41

  40. Cicourel & Kitsuse The social organisation of the high school and deviant adolescent careers. 1971. Interactionist Perspective Cicourel used an interactionist and micro perspective to examine how students were judged by teachers on the basis of class. KEY CONCEPTS: labelling. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Although the ‘counsellors’ claimed that they used exam grades and IQ tests as a way of classifying students’ achievement, Cicourel and Kitsuse found that the students’ social class had great implications on their college careers. * Students from upper-middle and middle class homes were more likely to be stereotyped as academic achievers and placed on courses with more prospects. * Other factors influenced the ‘counsellors’ impressions of students; dress, manner, their parents and their conduct. RESEARCH METHOD: an ethnographic study of how students in American schools are placed on appropriate courses (like the Enrollment process). STRENGTHS: acknowledges reasons why intelligent working class students can fail in education. WEAKNESSES: unrepresentative sample which is based on the American system and is therefore not generalisable to the British population. 42

  41. Rosenthal & Jacobson Pygmalion in the classroom.1968. Interactionist Rosenthal and Jacobson used an interactionist and micro perspective to explore the self-fulfilling prophecy. Perspective KEY CONCEPTS: labelling; self-fulfilling prophecy. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * They believed that teachers’ expectations can significantly affect their pupils’ performance. Based on such definitions or labels, the teacher makes predictions or prophecies about the achievement of the pupil. They may expect more from brighter pupils therefore they will encourage them more. * The pupils’ self-concepts tend to be shaped by teachers’ definition of them; if they are defined as bright, pupils’ will act accordingly and the label will have been fulfilled. RESEARCH METHOD: they selected a random sample of 20% of the student population in an elementary school in California. They informed the teachers that the children selected could be expected to see rapid intellectual growth. They tested all pupils’ IQ at the beginning of the experiment. All were tested again after one year and the 20% sample did in fact show significant improvement. WEAKNESSES: rather unethical method; what about the 80% who were relatively unsupported? Sociologists have cast doubt on the plausibility of the IQ test, stating they were of poor quality. No observations carried out to check extent of encouragement given to high achieving students. 43

  42. Stephen J. Ball Banding at Beachside Comprehensive. 1981. Perspective Interactionist Ball used an interactionist and micro perspective to explore banding and the self-fulfilling prophecy. KEY CONCEPTS: banding. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Ball found that children were placed in one of three bands in the school. This was meant to be on the basis of academic ability however, Ball found other factors were influential. * Ball found that children whose fathers were non-manual workers (more likely to be middle class), were more concentrated in the top band. * When the pupils first came to the school, all of them were pretty much conforming. However, they soon became like the stereotypes applied by their teachers; band three children experienced problems with learning and band two were the most disruptive. * Teachers’ expectations of the three different bands had a great impact: band one pupils were encouraged to have higher aspirations while band two and three were directed towards more practical and less prestigious subjects. RESEARCH METHOD: ethnographic research of a comprehensive school. WEAKNESSES: not all band two children failed, this weakens the relationship between banding and performance. 44

  43. Nell Keddie Classroom Knowledge.1973. (In Tinker, Tailor – The Myth of Cultural Deprivation). Interactionist Perspective Keddie used an interactionist and micro perspective to explore the relationship between teachers and pupils. KEY CONCEPTS: streaming. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Nell Keddie's study illustrated the way classroom interaction affects both the self-perception and performance of children. In the school she studied, a humanities course was introduced, to be taught to all pupils of a particular age group. Although the school streamed pupils on the basis of educational ability, this particular course was designed to be taught to pupils of all abilities, in mixed-ability classes. Thus, although the school itself was streamed, no streaming by ability took-place on this particular course. * What Keddie found was that teachers brought to the classroom a range of personal, social and work-related experiences that informed their perceptions of a child's ability. Thus, the fact that a pupil had attracted the label as an "A stream" or a "C stream" pupil informed teacher expectations of the respective abilities of each type of student. In addition, the way different pupils behaved in the classroom further served to confirm teacher expectations and behaviour. RESEARCH METHOD: ethnographic research of a comprehensive school and a particular humanities course. STRENGTHS: really showed how labelling theory worked in the classroom. 45

  44. Peter Woods The Divided School 1979; Perspective Interactionist KEY CONCEPTS: pupil adaptations; typology of adaptations. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * Pupils’ ways of dealing with school life depend on whether they accept or reject the ethos of the school. Woods identifies 8 different modes of adaptation to the school; 1) Ingratiation (most positive, ‘teacher’s pets’). 2) Compliance (they just try hard to achieve, not to please). 3) Opportunism (fluctuate between trying to achieve approval of their teachers and their peers). 4) Ritualists (they turn up, don’t try, but aren’t any trouble). 5) Retreatists (don’t do work, daydream and reject the values of the school). 6) Colonization (try to keep their nose clean and will cheat if they think they can get away with it). 7) Intransigence (they reject accepted standards of behaviour, not bothered about success and aren’t afraid to be caught out). 8) Rebellion (rejection of both the school and its objectives). RESEARCH METHOD: ethnographic research of a comprehensive school in a rural area of the Midlands “Lowfield”. WEAKNESSES: Woods relates his views in a very general way to social class, but ignores the complexities of interactions between teachers and pupils in schools. 46

  45. Hargreaves et al Deviance in Classrooms. 1975. Interactionist Perspective Hargreaves et al used an interactionist and micro perspective to explore how teachers type their pupils. KEY CONCEPTS: typing, speculation. SUMMARY OF THEORY: * They were interested in how teachers got to know their new pupils in their first year at school. * They used limited knowledge of children during the speculation phases where teachers type children according to; their appearance, how far they conformed to discipline, ability and enthusiasm for work, how likeable they were, their relationships with other children, their personality, whether they were deviant. * From this teachers form a working hypothesis. The elaboration phase follows where childrens’ behaviour confirms or contradicts the working hypothesis. During the final stabilization phase, all pupils’ actions are evaluated in terms of the type their teachers have labelled them as. RESEARCH METHOD: their study was based upon interviews with teachers and classroom observation in two secondary schools. WEAKNESSES: Unrepresentative research method based on only two schools. 47

  46. MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS ON RELATIONSHIPS AND PROCESSES IN SCHOOLS THAT AFFECT LEARNING. 1 Read Item A below and answer parts (a) to (d) that follow. Item A Students of all social classes are achieving more highly than ever before, but major differences in educational achievement persist. For example, those from professional and managerial background (classes I and II) are about two and a half times more likely to get five or more A* to C GCSEs than pupils from the unskilled manual class V. Similarly, class I students are five to six times more likely to go on to higher education than those from class V. Such differences are the result of a variety of factors. Within schools, processes such as teachers’ expectations of an interactions with their pupils, labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy, all tend to disadvantage working class pupils and negatively affect their achievement. However, some sociologists argue that material factors outside school are more important, while others argue than cultural differences between the classes are the key to explaining differences in achievement. (a) Explain what is meant by self-fulfilling prophecy. (2 marks) (b) Identify three other factors or processes within schools, apart from those mentioned in item A, that may negatively affect working-class pupils’ achievement. (6 marks) (c) Outline some of the in-school factors that can impact on the educational achievement of different social groups. (12 marks) (d) Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the role of processes in schools in producing different educational achievement among pupils from different social groups. (20 marks) MQP(vii)

  47. Educational policies by Governments – summary. • 1870 Education Act provided the first state-run schools for 5-10 year olds. • The 1944 Butler Education Act set up the tripartite system of secondary education – grammar, technical and secondary modern schools. • The tripartite system provided schools of unequal status and unequal quality. Middle class pupils tended to go to high-status grammar schools, working class pupils to low status secondary modern schools. • The comprehensive system (from 1965) was designed to provide equality of opportunity by replacing the tripartite system with a single type of school for all young people. Streaming helped to provide them with the most appropriate level of education. • Class differences in attainment remained, partly because pupils were placed in streams or sets with a disproportionate number of middle class pupils in higher ability groups and working class pupils in lower ability groups. • Conservative governments form 1979 to 1997 introduced work related training schemes and vocational qualifications. • The Education Reform Act of 1988 aimed to provide competition between schools and choice for parents. In theory, standards would rise as parents chose successful schools, while failing schools would go out of business. What happened was that working class parents and those without the means or pro-school attitude ensured that poor schools stayed full of challenging learners. 48

  48. Educational policies by Governments – summary. 8. Choice usually meant limited places and selection at the more popular schools. In this situation, the middle class with their cultural and social capital have the advantage. 9. The National Curriculum, introduced in 1988, was assessed by SATs in its core subjects. The results of these tests were published as league tables and provided parents with information to judge the performance of schools and choose the ‘best’ one. 10. Labour’s education policy was influenced by both neo-liberal / New Right and social democratic perspectives. 11. Labour continued the Conservatives’ policy of diversity and choice in a competitive educational market-place, where parents and children became consumers. Standard comprehensives were steadily replaced by specialist schools. 12. Labour introduced a range of measures designed to raise standards in low-income, inner-city areas. These included Sure Start, Education Action Zones, Excellence in Cities and academies. 13. The number of places in higher education was rapidly expanded by Labour. The middle class gained most from this as they had the money and the attitude. 14. The New Deal offered education and training for young people who had been out of work for over six months. (This helped to keep the unemployment statistics down). 15. While New Labour education policy did attempt to address social inequality through its initiatives such as the EMA, Sure Start and Education Action Zones, class differences in educational attainment have remained largely unchanged. 16. The Coalition Government of the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats, which came to power in May 2010, has tried to place a greater emphasis on academic rigor, pupil discipline through teacher empowerment, equipping learners with the skills to achieve independence and economic success & the injection of more market values into education. The overriding characteristic of the Coalition Government’s approach to education is the withdrawal of the State from schools’ & colleges’ business by making them more self-governing. 49

  49. Educational policies by Governments – concepts. 50

  50. Educational policies by Governments – concepts. 51

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