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An Overview of Information Processing and Information System Types

An Overview of Information Processing and Information System Types. In Order to fully appreciate how to develop Information Systems, we need to understand the history of Information Systems, why they were developed, and how they fit in the general scheme of things. ?? Why ??.

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An Overview of Information Processing and Information System Types

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  1. An Overview of Information Processing and Information System Types

  2. In Order to fully appreciate how to develop Information Systems, we need to understand the history of Information Systems, why they were developed, and how they fit in the general scheme of things ?? Why ?? We don’t need to know all the specifics, BUT • We need to understand why there are such things as Information Systems and why they were developed • To do that, we need to understand the past, and how they were developed • We can then get a feel for where we are going (Besides, it’s interesting and it’s something you should know)

  3. ?? How do we do that ?? We need to briefly overview the evolution of Computers and Management Information Systems ?? Starting When ?? We will discuss the pre-electronic eras of computers, BUT …. Our major emphasis will start with the first generation of Computers ….. 1951

  4. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ??? Why Do We Need Computers ??? Humans have always been interested in calculations Cavemen would count items with simple ‘counters’: | | | | slashes might be made on a wall to count 4 items  Simple systems frequently became overwhelming | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | slashes might indicate 49 items  There was a need to develop better systems | | | | Was a quicker method for interpreting the value 49

  5. 1 = I 13 = XIII 118 = CXVIII 1,590 = MDXC 15 = XV 161 = CLXI 1,976 = MCMLXXVI 2 = II 20 = XX 200 = CC 2,000 = MM 3 = III 4 25 = XXV 359 = CCCLIX = IV 5 = V 50 = L 500 = D 6 = VI 64 = LXIV 694 = DCXCIV 7 76 = LXXVI 729 = DCCXXIX = VII 89 = LXXXIX 799 = DCCXCIX 8 = VIII 94 954 = CMLIV 9 = IX = XCIV 100 C 1,000 = M 10 = X = The Romans Developed the first widely used Numbering System BUT, the system did NOT allow for calculations to be made

  6. Early Devices  The Chinese Developed the Abacus to make calculations approximately 5,000 Years ago As recently as the early 1940's, a skilled user of the abacus could outperform mechanical adding machines

  7. The Slide Ruler Edmund Gunther, early 1600’s Based on the concept of Logarithms Multiple Calculations Multiplication Reciprocals Division Logs Exponentiation Trigonometric Functions BUT, a slide ruler could NOT add or subtract Preferred tool by scientists until the 1970’s The last manufacturer of slide rulers went out of business in the 1980’s.

  8. The Pascaline Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Developed the Pascaline in 1642 Considered the 1st Mechanical Calculator (addition and subtraction) Based on an Ancient Greek design which calculated the distance traveled by a carriage

  9. Carry-Over The Compliment of 435 since 1000 – 435 = 565 The final Carry-Over is dropped ??? But how did it work ??? • It is based on the idea of 10’s Compliment: • The compliment of 7 is 3 (since 10 – 7 = 3) • The compliment of 82 is 18 (since 100 – 82 = 18) • The compliment of 127 is 873 (since 1000 – 127 = 873) • Rather than subtracting 2 numbers, we only need to add a number’s compliment • For example, to subtract: 723 – 435 (= 288) We need only add: 723 + 565 (The complement of 435) 1 723 +565 1 2 8 8

  10. ??? Was it a Success ??? No --- Pascal Encountered Problems The technology used was beyond its time The machine cost more than the people it replaced The machine was prone to break-downs Only Pascal knew how to repair it Social Acceptance Clerks feared the loss of their jobs “The Devil’s tool” First recorded case of ‘Technophobia’

  11. Gottfried Liebniz Developed the 'Leibniz Wheel’ (c 1690) An improvement over the Pascaline because the Leibniz wheel could also:  Multiply  Calculate Square Roots Although only about 50 years after the Pascaline, the Liebniz Wheel was better accepted

  12. Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar The Arithometer (c. 1820) Performed all the functions of the previous devices Remained in use until WWI The Problem with All of these devices was that they relied on fixed wheels Operations could not be changed unless the machine was physically altered

  13. Joseph Jacquard Devised a method for automating the weaving loom (c. 1800) Pre-determined patterns and colors could be ‘programmed’ into the loom The patterns could be changed WITHOUT physically altering the machine The first ‘variable input’ machine Because this occurred during the industrial revolution, Jacquard’s invention was widely accepted and Jacquard himself honored

  14. The ‘Difference Engine’ (c. 1822)  Charles Babbage (1791-1871)  The Father of Modern Computing  Annoyed by time required and numerous human errors made in calculating Logarithms Note the Time Period and Location:  War in Europe (Babbage proposed his ideas in 1812)  ‘Britannia Rules the Waves’ The Royal Navy used logarithms to produce astronomical tables for navigational purposes.  Babbage received a grant to develop a device which would quickly and accurately calculate logarithmic tables

  15. It sounds good, but ….. The Machine was steam Powered Like the Pascaline:  Prone to breakdowns  Expensive The biggest Problem: IT DIDN’T WORK!!!

  16. Did our hero give up ??? No! In 1833, Babbage proposed the ANALYTICAL ENGINE The Analytical Engine Consisted of 5 basic components: A Variable Input Device  Two ‘cards’ were used  One to indicate the operations to be performed  One to specify the data to be used A ‘Mill’, or device to process the commands and data A ‘Store’, or internal memory to hold commands and data A ‘Controller’, or device which determined how to process commands An Output Device to display results

  17. Control Unit (CU) Internal Storage (IS) Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) Central Processing Unit (CPU) ??? So ??? Babbage’s concepts formed the basis of modern day computer design A ‘Controller’, or device which determined how to process commands A ‘Store’, or internal memory to hold commands and data A ‘Mill’, or device to process the commands and data Variable Input Output Device

  18. ?? Did The Analytical Engine Ever Work ?? Not Really --- However ---  In 1855, George Scheutz, a Swedish Printer, constructed the first functional Difference Engine.  Babbage's son, Henry, did manage to develop a functional Mill portion of the Analytical Engine in the 1880's. Babbage also influenced one additional development Programming

  19. Ada Augusta Lovelace  The First Programmer  Lord Byron’s Daughter  In Reviewing Babbage’s article on the Analytical Engine, she compiled some notes which became the first Program  The U.S. Department of Defense named their programming language (ADA) after her

  20. Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)  1880: Census Clerk, Buffalo, NY  The U.S. Constitution Requires a Census Every 10 years The U.S. is experiencing a period of mass immigration It was taking more than 7 years to process and interpret the information  The Census Department held a competition to reduce collection and compilation time All entries were considered ‘ColorCoding’ was a leading contender Herman !!!! ---- Yup ---- It was  Guess who won?? ??? So, what was so special ???

  21. Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Relied on ‘punched cards’                                       Wires passing through holes in the card would close a circuit The System Consisted of three Components A Punch to create the cards A Tabulator to process the cards A Sorter to organize the cards by categories

  22. ?? Was the System Successful ??  The 1890 population count was completed in 6 months  All census data was compiled 2 years later  The total cost was $5 Million below forecasts  Later refinements allowed for additional data processing ?? What happened to Herman ??  In 1896 Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company to build Electronic Accounting Machines (EAMs)  The Tabulating Machine Company became the Computer Tabulating Recording Company (CTR)  In 1924 CTR changed its name to IBM (Hollerith retired in 1921)  Hollerith’s coding scheme for the basis of the EBCDIC coding scheme still used by IBM

  23. Konrad Zuse  Between 1936 and 1941, Zuse built Four machines The Z1 through the Z4 ?? So ??  Until Zuse’s machines, calculators were based on decimal  Zuse’s machines, were based on binary ?? So ??  As it turns out, binary was a more efficient system for computers processing  The Computer as we know it would not exist without Zuse’s approach

  24. On Off On On On Off On Off Off Off Off Off Off Off On Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off Off ?? So Zuse Developed the 1st Computer ?? Well … Not Quite … Zuse’s Machines used a series of mechanical(NOT electronic) Relays

  25. The First Computers  1939: Atanansoff & Berry (Iowa State) The ABC Machine Funded by Department of War  1944: Howard Aiken (Harvard University)  The MARK I  Also Funded by the Department of War 3 Seconds/Multiplication !!!  VERY FAST:

  26.  1946: Eckert & Mauchley (University of Pennsylvania) ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator Large:  30 Tons  1,500 Square Feet  19,000 Vacuum Tubes  When in Operation, Caused a ‘Brown-out’ in Philadelphia

  27. ??? So which was the 1st Real Computer ??? The ABC Machine used electromagnetic relays, and was really more of a prototype The MARK I was fully functional, but also relied on Electromechanical Parts ENIAC had NO moving parts ??? So ENIAC was the 1st Real Computer ??? The Issue was Contested In 1973, A federal Court awarded credit for the 1st computer to John Vincent Atanasoff and his assistant, Clifford Berry (The ABC Machine) Some still feel that ENIAC was the 1st Computer

  28. ??? Did the 1st Generation of computers begin with the ABC Machine or ENIAC ??? Neither Eckert & Mauchly (from U.P.) went on to form the Remington-Rand Corporation In 1951, Remington-Rand Produced (and sold) the 1st Commercially available Machine  The UNIVAC I ??? So What ??? The 1st Generation of Computers Begins with the Sale of the UNIVAC

  29. The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Onset: • Sale of the first UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) • An extension of the ENIAC Cost: $500K to $30M Major Uses: • Government • The 1st machine was sold to the US Census Department • Military • Scientific Applications

  30. The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Technology: • Vacuum Tubes • Approx. 19,000 needed (Up to 6’ Tall) • Large • Expensive • Fragile (Debugging) • Prone to Breakdowns and burn-outs (Brownouts) • Used An enormous amount of electricity (AC Needed) • Gave off an enormous amount of heat

  31. Magnetic Core The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Speed: 2,000 – 3,000 Instructions per second • By 1999, Most PCs were running at about 9 MIPS • In 2000, A Germany company developed a computer running at 51 BIPS Size: • The UNIVAC took up 1,500 square feet of space • IBM AN/FSQ-7 built for the US Air Force weighed 30 tons and took up as much space as a High School Gymnasium Memory: • Magnetic Core (Donuts) 1,000 – 4,000 ‘donuts’ (125 – 500 Chars) • Average:

  32. Magnetic Drum The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Secondary Storage: • Magnetic Drums • Punched Cards • Dated Back to Herman Hollerith in 1880

  33. Program + Operating System The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Secondary Storage: • Punched Cards • Dated Back to Herman Hollerith in 1880 Operating Environment: • Dedicated Machines • The programmer 1st got the operating system (on cards) • The added their program (on cards) • Then fed the Deck into the card reader

  34. IBM Wiring Board The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Program Languages: • Machine language (1st Generation) • Programmers needed to know all of the Operating Codes (in Binary), keep track of memory (in binary), and enter all code in binary Cost: (Approximately $25M to $1.5B in 2002 dollars) • $500,000 - $30M (1958) Availability: 2,550

  35. The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) A Typical Set-up: An IBM 650 in 1956: • The rental price for the CPU and power supply was $3,200/month • This was about the complete price of a fully loaded Cadillac • The equivalent of $156,800 in 1998 • The CPU was 5ft by 3ft by 6ft and weighed 1966 lbs • The power unit was 5ft by 3ft by 6ft and weighed 2972 lbs • A shirt pocket HP-100 will run on 2 AA cells and is much faster • A card reader/punch weighed 1295 lbs and rented for $550/month • The probable operating ratio was 80% -- not guaranteed • The estimated cost of spare parts was $4000/year ($196,000 in 1998) • The 650 could add or subtract in 1.63 mill-seconds, multiply in 12.96 ms, and divide in 16.90 ms • The memory on most systems was magnetic drum with 2000 word capacity • For an additional $1,500/month you could add magnetic core memory of 60 words with access time of .096ms

  36. The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Information Systems Usage: • No RealSystems • The Programs written were highly procedural in nature • User involvement Not Necessary User Attitude: • “What is a Computer?” Manager Attitude: • “What is a Computer?” Designer Attitude: • “What are Users and Managers?”

  37. The 1st Generation of Computers (1951 - 58) Additional Issues of Note: • 1951: Univac • Built ‘On-Demand’ for no specialized purpose and with no variations • 1953: IBM701 • Business Oriented • Not Extremely Successful • 1954: IBM650 • Slight Improvement • Direct Marketing • Very Successful • By End of 1st generation: • IBM largest manufacturer of computers (An Anti-Trust Suit had already been filed against IBM in 1952)

  38. The IBM-1407 The 2nd Generation of Computers (1959 - 65) Onset: • 1948: Bell Labs • First Transistors • 1954: TRADIC • 800 Transistors • 1959: IBM7000 • No Vacuum Tubes • 1959: IBM1401 • IBM completely dominates the computer market Uses: • Expanded Government and Research usage (Almost exclusively for Accounting) • Large Businesses

  39. The IBM-1407 System The 2nd Generation of Computers (1959 - 65) Technology: • Transistors • Relatively Small • Much Cheaper • Required Less Electricity • Gave off less heat • Less prone to break-downs • Could be Mass Produced

  40. IBM Tape Reader The 2nd Generation of Computers (1959 - 65) Speed: • 1 – 1.2 MIPS • Clock Speeds of about 0.086 mHz (vs. about 2 gHz, or better, for most PCs today) Memory: • All Magnetic Core • The IBM-1401 typically had between 4k to 16k (32k was considered large) (In 2001, 1 MB of RAM could be purchased for as little as $0.19) Secondary Storage: • Still mostly Punched Cards • Magnetic Tape Available • Used 2-10½ Reels • Capable of storing 14 MB/Reel (The Equivalent of about 175,000 punch cards)

  41. Year Model Cost (in that year’s $) 1959 IBM 7090 $3,000,000 1960 IBM 1620 $200,000 1960 DEC PDP-1 $120,000 1960 DEC PDP-4 $65,000 1962 UNIVAC III $700,000 1964 CDC 6600 $6,000,000 1965 IBM 1130 $50,000 The 2nd Generation of Computers (1959 - 65) Cost: • Variable:

  42. Gene Amdahl The 2nd Generation of Computers (1959 - 65) Operating Environment: • The 1st Operating System (DOS) was invented by IBM in 1956 but was not widely available until the 2nd Generation Programming Languages: • Assembly Language (2nd Generation; 1st developed in 1949) • For example to add 4 + 6, the code needed was: MOV AX,0006 ; Puts value 0006 at register AX (Accumulator)MOV BX,0004 ; Puts value 0004 at register BXADD AX,BX ; Adds BX to AX contents vs. the Machine Language (1st Generation) Code: 00110 00110 00000111100 ;Store value 110 (6) in memory loc 111100 (60) 00110 00100 00001001101 ;Store value 100 (6) in memory loc 1001101 (77) 10100 00000111100 ;Load value in location 111100 into accumulator 00000 00001001101 ;Add contents of memory loc 1001101 to accumulator

  43. Grace Hopper (1902 – 1992) The 2nd Generation of Computers (1959 - 65) Programming Languages (Continued): • 1957: 3rd Generation Laguages: FORmula TRANslation (IBM) • To add 4 + 6, the code needed was: y = 4 + 6 ( y is the location in memory; no register operations required) (Dept. of Defense) • 1958: COBOL • Intended for transaction processing and the processing of large amounts of data (Peripherals still large) Size: Corner of (large) room Availability: (1964) 18,000

  44. The 2nd Generation of Computers (1959 - 65) Information Systems Usage: • Mostly Individual Programs written for Specific needs • Programs still highly Procedural in nature (Under Accounting) • EDP departments established • Some Manager Involvement • User involvement considered unnecessary User Attitudes: • “I’ve heard of computers. What do they do? Will they replace us?” Manager Attitudes: • “Maybe these things can save us money!” Designer Attitudes: • “We’re still in control: We can do what we like!”

  45. The 3rd Generation of Computers (1968 - 70) Onset: Photolithography (Reduction and Burning) • Small Scale Integration (SSI) • 10’s of transistors/chip • Medium Scale Integration (MSI) • 100’s of transistors/chip • Large Scale Integration (LSI) • 1,000’s of transistors/chip • Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) • Millions of transistors/chip

  46. The 3rd Generation of Computers (1965 - 70) Onset (Cont.): • IBM 360 series • Several Models Available • Expandable • Software Unbundling • Software Compatibility (More Anti-trust legislation pending) Uses: • Medium Size Businesses • Educational Facilities • Still primarily Accounting (TPS) but some Managerial Reporting

  47. Mini-Computers DEC PDP-8 Super Computers Cray Y-MP (1988) Mainframes The 3rd Generation of Computers (1965 - 70) Major Changes: • Market Segmentation • Smaller Businesses • Small Universities (DEC PDP-1 Introduced in 1960) • Large Research Ctrs. • Companies needing extra resources (CDC Cyber 6000 Introduced in 1964) • Mainstream Businesses and Organizations (UNIVAC Updated)

  48. This integrated circuit, an F-100 microprocessor, is only 0.6 cm square and is small enough to pass through the eye of a needle. IBM 1405 Disk Storage The 3rd Generation of Computers (1965 - 70) Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs) • Small • Used little Electricity • Cheap • Gave off little heat • Durable • Seldom Broke down Speed: 0.01 Microsecond per operations (1,000,000/.01 = 100 MIPS) Memory: 32K to 3MB Secondary Storage: (Up to about 3 GB) • Magnetic Disks (In 2001, a 120 GB Drive sold for as little as $275) • The IBM 1405 Disk: • Could store up to 10 MB per disk • Had up to 50 Disks, each 2’ in Diameter • Purchase price per MB: around $10,000 (vs. $0.002 for the drive above – 5,000,000 times cheaper)

  49. Kemeny and Kurtz The 3rd Generation of Computers (1965 - 70) Size: (Mini-Computer) Small Closet Cost: $15K to $10M Operating Environment: Enhancements to IBM/DOS Programming Languages: • BASIC (1964) • Kemeny and Kurtz at Dartmouth University • 1st Interpreted Language Availability: (1970) 150,000

  50. The 3rd Generation of Computers (1965 - 70) Information Systems Usage: • Early Generation: (Centralized Control) • EDP Departments Expanding • Emphasis on on automating everything (Organizational Efficiency) • Increased Emphasis on Managerial Reporting • Periodic Reports • Weekly Sales Summaries • Monthly Budgets • On-Demand Reports • “How do our sales compare to San Antonio’s?” • Exception Reports • “Why did Johnson have $4,000 in sales expenses last month?”

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