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Modern European History I HIS-106

Modern European History I HIS-106. Unit 7 - The Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution was one of the major revolutions of the modern period Saw changes in astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry 150 year process It is said to have started in 1543

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Modern European History I HIS-106

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  1. Modern European History IHIS-106 Unit 7 - The Scientific Revolution

  2. The Scientific Revolution • The Scientific Revolution was one of the major revolutions of the modern period • Saw changes in astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry • 150 year process • It is said to have started in 1543 • Copernicus’ On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres (1543) • It ended with Newton • It was comprised of three parts: • Acceptance and confirmation of the heliocentric view of the universe • Development of new physics that supported this • Development of a method of enquiry (the “scientific method”)

  3. Aristotle • (384–322 BCE)

  4. Pre-Modern Scientific Thought • Throughout history, mankind has constantly sought to explain the universe • During the Middle Ages, western science was dominated by one man: Aristotle • Three important theories of Aristotle: • Four Elements - Earth, air, fire, and water sat in concentric spheres with earth at the center and air in the outermost sphere • Motion - Rest is natural and motion occurs in two ways: movement towards their “natural place” or through “violent” means • Aether – Material the heavens are made of and its natural motion is circular

  5. Claudius Ptolemy • (c. 90-161 AD)

  6. Pre-Modern Scientific Thought • Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90-161 AD) • He was a mathematician and astronomer • He laid out his geocentric view (Ptolemaic System) of the universe in the Almagest • Earth was surrounded by a series of crystalline spheres which contained the sun, other planets, and the stars • They rotated around the earth in perfect circles every day • This view became the dominant view of the universe throughout the Middle Ages • These theories fit well with Christianity • The earth and humans were at the center of the universe while God was at the other end

  7. Geocentric Universe

  8. Pre-Modern Scientific Thought • While science did have somewhat of an impact during the Middle Ages, there were also strong religious beliefs “tied” into it • Rise of Alchemy • Reborn in Europe after 1300 • Based on the ancient Greek belief of transmutation • Most popular theory was transforming lead into gold • Astrology • Events in the heavens impacting those on Earth • This did tie in with Christianity

  9. Pre-Modern Scientific Thought • In the 12th and 13th centuries, writings of the ancient philosophers were rediscovered • This had an impact on the development of philosophy • How do you reconcile ancient philosophers with the church? • Scholasticism (c.12th – 15th centuries) • Blended Aristotle’s philosophy with theology • Believed faith and reason were comparable • Used observation and empirical thought to support church doctrines • Main figures: Albertus Magnus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure and, Thomas Aquinas

  10. Pre-Modern Scientific Thought • Scholastic method was based on Aristotelian method • Read a certain written work • Read other documents relating to this work, including those by the church and church fathers • Lay out any contradictions in this work • Working with other scholars, try to figure out a “common ground” • This was to show that there really was not a contradiction or that there was a misinterpretation on the part of the reader • This led to the rise of other “sciences” • In the 12th century there was the rise of Naturalists • This was followed with the development of the science of optics and astronomy in the 14th century

  11. William of Ockham • (c.1288-c.1347)

  12. Causes of the Scientific Revolution • Expansion of Trade • With overseas travel, merchants faced navigational issues • This led to research into new and improved tools (e.g., telescope) • Also, new plant and animal specimens provoked interest • Medieval Universities • Studies began with the ancient philosophers • Sparked interest in logical thought • Ockham's Razor – “Do not multiply entities more than necessary” • University of Padua emerged as a preeminent school in Venice, a very free thinking city of the time

  13. Causes of the Scientific Revolution • The Renaissance • Renewed interest in math, especially by da Vinci • Growth of Neo-Platonism – Nature provided us with a greater understanding of God • Rise of humanism • Printing Press • Allowed for mass production of scientific texts • Made it easier for the masses to get access to such material • The Reformation • Already questioned the authority of the Church • Protestant countries provided safe havens

  14. Revolution in Astronomy • The greatest changes took place in astronomy • The “science” did not fit with the observations • Stars were not where they were supposed • Did not explain the movement of Mars • Questioning Ptolemy • Started in the 14th century • Humanists went back to Ptolemy’s original works • Discovered that Ptolemy’s math was faulty • Revolution begins in 1543 • Publication of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (“On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres”)

  15. Nicolaus Copernicus • (1473-1543)

  16. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • Polish scientist • Was the first to seriously question the Ptolemaic System • Studied at the top universities of Europe • Studied medicine, canon and civil law, and astronomy • In 1503, he received a doctorate in canon law from the University of Padua • He was exposed to mathematicians and astronomers • Many of them believed that the Ptolemaic system was flawed • He agreed • How God could create such a messy system?

  17. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres (1543) • Made numerous observations between 1514 and 1530 • Did not publish until May 1543 out of fear of negative reactions • Explained his heliocentric view of the universe • Copernicus’ Heliocentric View • Based on mathematical calculations • The universe was made up of eight spheres with the sun at the center • The planets revolved around the sun • The Earth has three motions that explained the movement of the sun and stars (daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis)

  18. Copernicus’ Heliocentric View of the Universe

  19. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • This was a huge breakthrough • He used math to invalidate Ptolemy • It was still conservative • He used conservative math, not observation • Kept the Aristotelian concept of circular orbits • Used it to explain the perfection of God’s design • One big problem: • What he had designed went against the Bible • In both Psalms 93:1 and 96:10 it said that “the world is established, it cannot be moved”

  20. Tycho Brahe • (1546-1601)

  21. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • He was a Danish nobleman • Best known for his astronomical observations • Studied law and astronomy at the University of Copenhagen • In 1572, he discovered a new star in Cassiopeia • If the universe was unchanging where did this star come from? • In 1577, he discovered a new comet • This challenged the concept of crystalline sphere • Built an observatory on the island of Hven • Equipped with superior instruments • Did not use a telescope

  22. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • Observations of the night sky • For 21 years, Brahe made observations of the heavens • He complied the most accurate maps of the sky at this time • Each year he went over his observations and corrected them • He rejected both Ptolemy and Copernicus • Instead he came up with his own model • Tychonian System • All planets, except for the Earth, revolved around the sun • This whole system then revolved around the Earth • He still accepted the Aristotelian concept of circular orbits

  23. Tychonian System of the Universe

  24. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • He also led a very interesting life • He was a heavy drinker • He lost part of his nose in a duel and wore a fake nose • He was in possession of a tamed moose • Even his death was interesting • The old belief was that he died due to a ruptured bladder • In 1996, his body was examined and there was a large amount of mercury in his hair and body • Death was either accidental or at the hands of his student: Johannes Kepler

  25. Johannes Kepler • (1571-1630)

  26. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • Born of very poor parents • His original plan was to become a Lutheran minister • Changed his major to mathematics and astronomy while at the University of Tübingen • Became Lecturer of Mathematics at the University of Graz • In 1600, Kepler became one of Brahe’s assistants • In 1601, he was appointed as the Imperial Mathematician for Emperor Rudolph II • Kepler took all of Brahe’s instruments and observations • When he tried to apply Brahe’s observations to Copernicus’ theory, it did not work out

  27. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • Kepler’s Observations • Spent 25 years going over Brahe’s work to find the flaw • He discovered the flaw was with Copernicus • Testing numerous hypotheses, he came up with his laws • Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion • Each planet moves in an orbit that is elliptical; the sun acts as one of the two foci of that ellipse • Planets nearer to the sun move faster than planets farther away • Planets with larger orbits revolve around the sun at a slower velocity than those with smaller orbits • These were published in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy) in 1609

  28. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • This destroyed the Aristotelian system • There were still problems with his laws • He did not understand the reason behind the ellipses • If the earth is moving so fast, why do we not move horizontally when we jump? • Magnetism • He believed that magnetism between the sun and the planets kept the latter in orbital motion • However was rejected as sounding too “magical” • He also improved on the telescope • He used two convex lenses to produce greater magnification (the “Keplerian Telescope”) in 1611

  29. Galileo Galilei • (1564-1642)

  30. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • Born of a lesser noble Pisan family • Studied medicine then math at the University of Pisa • In 1589, he became the chair of mathematics at the University • In 1592, he began teaching math at the University of Padua • Contributions to astronomy • Improved the design of the original telescope by making a 20x telescope in 1609 • Used his new telescope to observe the heavens • He discovered craters and mountains on the moon • He also discovered the Jupiter had four moons

  31. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • SidereusNuncius (“Starry Messenger”) (1610) • Stated the moon was not the “perfect” or “ethereal” surface Aristotle predicted • Stated that the moons of Jupiter were actually orbiting around the planet • Letters on Sunspots (1613) • Galileo supported the heliocentric view of the universe • It also showed that the sun was also flawed • Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems (1632) • Examined both the Ptolemaic and Copernican views • Most of the work focused on supporting the Copernican view • It had been cleared by Inquisition censors

  32. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • Contributions to motion • Galileo’s Principle of Inertia - A body continues to move in a certain direction unless stopped • Based on experiments and observation • Was able to tie in motion of the earth to astronomy • Dropping objects from Leaning Tower of Pisa? • Discourses on Two New Sciences (1638) • It included the Law of Falling Bodies • All bodies, regardless of mass, fall at the same rate of speed • Planets also fall at the same rate of speed • Orbits vary not to the size of the planet but the size of the orbits • Challenged Aristotle on many grounds

  33. Giordano Bruno • (1548-1600)

  34. Reaction of the Catholic Church • Catholic Church would not accept any scientific ideas that threatened church beliefs • Jesuits believed these would weaken the Church • Dominicans supported Aristotelian beliefs • Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) • Believed that stars were other suns and there was a plurality of worlds • Stated that the universe was infinite • Burned at the stake by the Inquisition on charges of heresy, blasphemy, and “immoral conduct”

  35. Reaction of the Catholic Church • Church challenged the Copernican System after 1600 • Argued that the Copernican system was just not possible • It condemned Copernicanism • Galileo did not believe his work was heretical • Parts of the Bible should not be taken literally • Stated the Scripture cannot be wrong but man can misinterpret • Believed that the Bible should not be used to understand the heavens • In 1615, Galileo wrote a letter to the Grand Duchess of Tuscany • Argued for separation of theology and science • God endowed us with reason to understand the universe

  36. Reaction of the Catholic Church • In 1616, Galileo asked the Church to not ban his ideas • Cardinal Robert Bellarmine told him to teach his system only as a hypothesis, to as fact • He agreed • This changed after publication of Dialogue (1632) • In 1633, Galileo was brought before the Inquisition • Charges were suspicion of heresy • He was forced to recant heliocentrism • He was placed under house arrest • Dialogues was banned • Pope Urban VIII issued a papal decree which stated it was heresy to believe in heliocentrism

  37. Reaction of the Catholic Church • Catholic Church was most hostile to science in Catholic countries • Especially true in Italy (except in Venice) and Spain • In Venice, anti-clericalism was strongest • The University of Padua was located there • Number of key scientists studied there • In France, state authority trumped church authority • Allowed more freedom there • In Protestant countries, less state control meant less interference • Ironically, Protestants were hostile to Copernicanism for Biblical reasons

  38. Sir Francis Bacon • (1561-1626)

  39. Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) • Development of Scientific Method • Wanted to find a proper way to examine the natural world • This meant trashing old ideas and coming up with new ones • Two main figures: Bacon and Descartes • Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) • Attended Trinity College, Cambridge • Discovered Aristotelian methods were incorrect and led to the wrong conclusion • He was a judge and Lord Chancellor • Was interested in natural philosophy and the search for the truth

  40. Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) • Meditationes Sacrae (1597) • Most famous for the line “scientia potentia est” or “knowledge is power” • The Proficience and Advancement of Learning (1605) • Discredited the methods of the current natural philosophers • They were using ancient methods which were incorrect • Novum Organum (1620) • Scientists would never learn anything unless they changed their methods • Inductive reasoning - Use observations to draw general conclusions and then repeating experiments for verification • This became known as the scientific method

  41. René Descartes • (1596-1650)

  42. René Descartes (1596-1650) • René Descartes (1596-1650) • Born into a minor noble family in France • Attended a Jesuit school at the age of 11 • Received a law degree from the University of Poitiers • Served under Maurice of Nassau during the Thirty Years’ War • Under tutelage from Isaac Beeckman, he became interested in math • Some of his ideas were similar to Bacon • Both believed that established knowledge should be questioned • Both believed that ideas should be valued on their usefulness • Descartes was more of a rationalist and believed in logic and mathematics

  43. René Descartes (1596-1650) • Contributions to math • Linked algebra from Arab and Hindu math to geometry from Greek math • Key for future methods of science • Contributions to epistemology • Descartes had a dream in November 1619 • In it, he came up with a new rational mathematical system to explaining the universe • He would spend the rest of his life working on this system

  44. René Descartes (1596-1650) • Discourse on Method (1637) • Doubted everything including his own existence • Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”) • From there was able to reestablish knowledge using deductive reasoning • Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) • “Proved” the existence of God • Dualism between the mind and the body • “The mind cannot be doubted by the body and material world can, the two must be radically different” • The universe is made up of two things: “thinking substance” and “extended substance”

  45. René Descartes (1596-1650) • All creatures were machines • Humans were different because they had rational minds • Allows them to find the path to knowledge • The universe was a machine with laws • Humans could use math to understand it • Descartes died on February 11, 1650 • Attending the court of Queen Christina of Sweden • She was an early riser • He was not • Developed pneumonia and died ten days later

  46. René Descartes (1596-1650) • In 1667, Descartes’ works were placed on the Catholic church’s “Index of Prohibited Books” • This was mainly due to his rejection of religious influence in his studies • Also, he condemned the Aristotelian method of science • Key impact on the scientific method • He emphasized deduction and mathematical logic • Complimented Bacon’s work of experiments and induction • Newton is going to take it to the next level • Used Bacon’s empiricism with Descartes’ rationalism • This led to the use of systematic observations and experiments

  47. Sir Isaac Newton • (1643-1727)

  48. Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) • Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) • English mathematician and experimenter • One of the greatest scientific minds of western civilization • He was secretive, obsessive, vindictive, and petty • Went to Trinity College, Cambridge for math • Developing Calculus • Plague of 1666 forced him home for 18 months • Invented calculus and started working on his law of gravity • Work in Optics • From1670 to 1672, devoted himself to optics • Invented a reflecting telescope

  49. Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) • Contributions to mechanics • In 1677, began working on the role of gravity • Worked on Galileo’s Theory of Inertia and Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion • Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) • Better known as Principia • Defined his three laws of motion • “For every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction” • Applied them to both planetary bodies and terrestrial objects • Law of Universal Gravity

  50. Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) • What makes Newton so special? • Took the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo and created one solid theory • The universe operated as one regulated and uniform machine • All of this was backed by observation, experience, and math • Calculus controversy • Did Newton really invent it? • Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) developed calculus later than Newton • However, published before Newton did • Most scholars agree that the two developed it independently of one another

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