Modern European History I HIS-106

Modern European History IHIS-106 Unit 8 - The Rise of Western Europe, 1713-1763

18th Century Economy • Characteristics of 18th century economy: • Major economic powers were the French, British, and Dutch • This was due to extensive colonies and monopolies • Global economy expanded • Europe became wealthier than any other part of the world • Industry • Agriculture was the largest single industry and the main source of wealth source of wealth • Manufacturing was based on commercial capitalism and the handicraft (cottage) industry • Most industry occurred in the countryside rather than the cities

18th Century Economy • Most commerce was domestic • Britain had no internal tariffs and did not allow for internal monopolies • France was divided into Five Great Farms which also allowed for a large internal free-trade market • International Trade • Though the Dutch were no longer a political power, they were an economic one • Remained dominant in shipping and wealthy from their East India Company • French and British rose in prominence due to their East India companies as well

18th Century Economy • Rise of Britain and France • Had high levels of domestic industrial production • Governments were organized on a national scale • Used mercantilist economic policies • Wanted to advance the interests of merchants • Both enjoyed commercial expansion for most of the century • Consequences of the new global economy • Higher standard of living for western Europe • Large gap between the wealthy and the poor • New capitalist class: bourgeoisie • Made their wealth through commerce and rivaled the aristocracy

The Duet • By Arthur Devis

Post-1713 Western Europe • With the Peace of Utrecht (1713), the state system had been preserved • State of Europe: • France had been weakened by the succession of wars • It was still a formidable power in Europe • No longer influenced Spain • The Bourbons were in control of Spain (Philip V) • Austria now held most of Spain’s old European possessions • This included the now Austrian Netherlands and Italy • Britain emerged as the major military power • Dutch begin their decline as a political power

Post-1713 Western Europe • The two main powers were France and Britain • While they shared two different government systems, they both followed similar paths post-1713 • They were plagued with ineffective monarchs • This led to a rise in power of the landed aristocracy • They enjoyed commercial expansion • They enjoyed an economic bubble that burst in 1720 • After that point, the governments were run by statesmen • In France in was Cardinal Fluery • In Britain, it was Robert Walpole

Louis XV • (1716-1774)

Louis XV (1716-1774) • While Louis XIV spent his years as king consolidating his power into an absolute monarchy, his successor quickly destroyed it • Louis XV took the throne at the age of five • He had been Louis XIV’s great-grandson and only surviving male heir • According to Louis XIV’s will, the regency was to be divided between Philippe, Duc d’Orleans, and Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine • Orleans was Louis XIV’s nephew and Maine was his legitimized bastard son

Louis XV (1716-1774) • The day after Louis XIV died, Orleans went to the Parlement de Paris to have his will annulled • This way he would be sole regent of France • The Parlement agreed and confirmed Orleans as the regent • This was the first attack to Louis XIV’s style of absolutism • During the regency, Orleans reversed a number of policies of Louis XIV • He eased up religious restrictions against the Jansenists • He lifted many of the harsh censorship policies

Louis XV (1716-1774) • One thing that did hurt the power of the monarchy was that there was a resurgence of the power of the nobility • They were no longer forced to reside at Versailles for part of the year and were able to rebuild their powerbases at home • Tied in with this was the “feudal reaction” • As materialism rose and so did the cost of living, the nobility was in short supply of money • To increase their incomes, they raised the feudal dues owed to them by their peasants and, in some cases, created new ones • They also sought to prevent non-nobility from achieving high ranks in government and the military

Louis XV (1716-1774) • Reemergence of the parlements • These were law courts • Most prominent was the Parlement of Paris • Under Louis XIV, judgeships were sold to the highest bidder and included what a title of nobility • During the Regency, they broadened their position • Claimed the right to pass or refuse legislation and taxes • All of this checked the power of the monarch • The nobility were now the balancing agent • This meant that there would not be another absolute monarch after Louis XIV

Louis XV (1716-1774) • When Louis turned twelve in 1723, he took the throne under his own name • Orleans stayed on as his prime minister until 1726 • Louis was very popular and had the nickname “The Beloved” • However, Louis he had no interest in ruling • Instead, he set up advisors and councils to rule in his place • This meant that royal power continued to diminish • In 1726, Cardinal André-Hercule de Fleury was made first minister • He was the man who was actually ruling the country until his death in 1743

Louis XV (1716-1774) • Louis kept himself busy during this time with hunting and pursuing mistresses • He had his own prostitutes and brothel (Parc aux Cerfs) • He was famous for his mistresses which became a joke by the end of his reign as they were as famous as he was • One of Louis’ most famous mistresses was Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson • While she was educated and came from a wealthy family, she was not nobility which caused much criticism from the French • She ended up having much influence over the king with her Enlightenment ideas • Louis eventually gave her the title the marquise de Pompadour

Madame de Pompadour

England in the 18th Century • England’s limited monarchy • Increasing Parliamentary control at the expense of the king • King’s ministers set policy and guided Parliament • Parliament would levy taxes, make laws, and indirectly influence the king’s ministers • Parliament was controlled by the aristocracy • House of Lords had the peers of the realm • House of Commons had the landed gentry • Both shared similar interests but were plagued by rivalries • Monarchs were not powerless • They would play upon these rivalries and gain the support of the aristocracy through the granting of titles, jobs, and land

English Aristocracy • The English aristocracy was made up of the landed nobility • They made up the House of Lords • This was a hereditary position • They were also the ones typically appointed to high positions in government • The House of Commons was not truly representative • Made up mainly of wealthy • People were voted in by a rather bizarre system that did not take into account population numbers or the wishes of the public • Still made up more varied interests than the House of Lords

Queen Anne • (1702-1714)

Queen Anne (1702-1714) • Mary II died in 1694 • William continued to rule as sole monarch until his death in 1702 • Per the Bill of Rights (1689), Anne was next in line for the throne • During her reign there is an increase in the influence of the ministers • This was done at the expense of the crown • Part of the reason for this was Anne suffered from numerous illnesses, including gout and possibly porphyria

Queen Anne (1702-1714) • Act of Union (1707) • This act united the kingdoms of England and Scotland into Great Britain • Anne had her own succession issues • Out of 18 pregnancies, only four survived birth and only one made it to infancy (he died at the age of 11) • Act of Settlement (1701) • If Anne did not have an heir to the throne upon her death, the next in line would be the descendants of Electress Sophia of Hanover • It stated that only Protestant descendants were allowed

Queen Anne (1702-1714) • Her reign also witnessed further development of the two party system • Distinctions between the two parties had evolved into new entities • Tories • They were strong supporters of the Anglican church and allowed for little religious tolerance • Resisted getting involved in foreign wars on the continent • Were concerned with the protection of the Atlantic trade routes • Were also strongly tied to the land, as most of its members came from the landed gentry

Queen Anne (1702-1714) • Whigs • They were the aristocracy and upper middle-class • They supported Parliament's right to determine the succession to the throne • They wanted to stop the growing power of France at all cost • They were more religiously tolerant and wanted a broad interpretation of the Toleration Act (1689), which allowed non-conforming Protestants religious freedom • Anne died on August 1, 1714 • The cause of death was erysipelas, a strep infection • By the time of her death, her body was so swollen due to gout and the infection that her tomb was quite large

George I • (1714-1727)

George I (1714-1727) • Sophia of Hanover had died shortly before Anne • This meant that her son, George of Hanover, would be the next king of England • This was the end of the Stuart dynasty and the start of the Hanover dynasty • George I (1714-1727) • He was 56 years old when he took the throne • He did not speak English • Some were against George taking the throne • Mostly supported by the Tories, this group wanted James II’s Catholic son, James Edward, to succeed to the throne as the legitimate heir

George I (1714-1727) • Jacobites • Comes from the Latin Jacobus for James • Rebellions broke out in 1715 and 1719 but were put down • The Whigs would not support a return to the Stuarts • Gave their support for George I • In turn, George relied on them more than the Tories • George set up a ministry of mostly Whig members • Most of the affairs were placed in the hands of his ministry since the king did not understand the British government • Robert Walpole became the first chief minister in 1721 • With this, George was setting the stage for the modern cabinet system of Britain

James Edward Stuart • (1688-1766)

The “Bubbles” • The early 18th century witnessed a growing interest in lending and public debt • Both England and France faced large debts following the wars of the 17th century • Many people were willing to invest in these loans as a way of making future profits • There was a close tie between government finance and private enterprise • Due to the mercantilist theories held at this time • Most of the debt would be held by charter companies specifically designed by the government for such purposes • Private citizens would then purchase stock in these companies

France and John Law • During the Regency of Louis XV, John Law had been appointment financial minister • He was a Scottish financier who set up the Banque Générale Privée in Paris in 1716 • He had also created a trade monopoly with the Mississippi Company • This controlled trade with Louisiana and the French possessions in Africa and Asia • Law believed that he could help the growing government debt by taking it over • Both Louis and Orleans agreed in 1720

France and John Law • The Mississippi Company traded debt shares of individuals for shares in the company • Shareholders would receive dividends and the profits would go to pay down the debt • Speculation got out of control with the shares being valued at 18,000 livres each • Once investors discovered that the shares were grossly overvalued, they sold them en masse • Many nobility lost their estates and most of their money in the panic • Law fled to Brussels • Orleans was discredited and resigned as regent in 1723

France and John Law • France was forced to repudiate its debt • Nobles refused to pay taxes • When a 2% tax was proposed, nobles shot it down in the Parlement of Paris • This meant that France would have great trouble getting any future credit • Many at the time did not understand a “national” debt • Instead they viewed it as the king’s personal debt • Therefore many believed that it was the king’s responsibility, not the population’s

John Law • French Finance Minister (1720)

England and the South Sea Company • In England, the South Sea Company was founded in 1711 • Had a monopoly on trade with the Spanish colonies • Included asiento, which was the contract to supply those colonies with slaves • By 1719, the Company took over most of the public debt • Stock was sold in the company to pay of the debt • Shareholders would receive dividends from the stock • Stocks shot up in value • £100 stocks sold as high as £128 in January 1720 to £550 by the end of that May • At its height in August, stock sold for £1,050

England and the South Sea Company • Other such stock companies were created at the time • The hope was to make good money off of stock dividends • By September 1720, many realized that the South Sea stocks were grossly overvalued • This led to mass selling of stock • Stocks were selling at only £150 • Many lost their savings and inheritances disappear • Sir Isaac Newton lost £20,000 (~ £3 million) • The “Bubble Act” (1720) • Full name was the Royal Exchange and London Assurance Corporation Act • Required all new joint stock companies to be incorporated either by Parliament or royal charter

England and the South Sea Company • In April 1721, Robert Walpole was appointed as the first chief minister • He managed to slowly but surely pay off the country’s debt • Unlike France, Britain viewed the country’s debt as a “national” debt • This meant that the population was more willing to pay their fare share through taxes • Mostly through indirect taxes as the landed aristocracy refused direct taxes • In the end, Britain had a strong credit rating

Cardinal de Fleury • French Chief Minister (1723-1743)

Fleury and Walpole • André-Hercule de Fleury (1653-1743) • Was 73 years old when he became chief minister • Focused mainly on maintaining peace in Europe • Kept domestic peace by refusing to raise taxes • War of Polish Succession (1733-1738) • France was drawn into the war by supporting Louis XV’s father-in-law, Stanislaus Leszczynski • Russia and the Habsburgs chose Augustus III • Was ill-prepared for war as Fleury let the French military go into decline

Robert Walpole • English Prime Minister (1721-1742)

Fleury and Walpole • Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745) • Was a Whig • Set up the modern cabinet system in Britain • Ministers were members of the legislative body • Always managed a majority in the House of Commons • Like Fleury, he wanted to maintain both foreign and domestic peace • George II (1727-1760) • Like his father, he also placed heavy emphasis on the use of ministers during his reign • During his reign, Britain was pulled into numerous conflicts

Fleury and Walpole • War of Jenkin’s Ear (1739-1748) • This was a conflict with Spain in the New World • Captain Robert Jenkins had approached Parliament with his ear in a jar saying it was cut off by the Spanish • This later got merged into the War of Austrian Succession • The “Forty-Five” (1745) • Jacobite rebellion led James Edwards’ son, Charles Edward, who became known as Bonnie Prince Charlie • The rebellion was successful at taking Scotland, which heavily supported the Jacobites • However, British military superiority led to the defeat of the Jacobites when they attempted to invade England

George II • (1727-1760)

Great War of the Mid-18th Century • The “Great War” (1739-1763) • It began with the War of Jenkin’s Ear (1739) • It ended with the Peace of Paris (1763) • Included the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years War (1756-1763) • Shared the same two issues: • Duel between Britain and France • Duel between Prussia and Austria • Major concern during the 18th century was keeping the “balance of power” • On many occasions, this was handled with diplomacy • However, countries learned to keep large armies just in case

Great War of the Mid-18th Century • Most troops were professional and highly trained • Depended on large supply depots to service the troops • Troops were very expensive and general did not want to “waste” them • No sense of nationalism • Prussia used mercenaries for half of its forces • Britain used German regiments • France had both French and German regiments • War was between governments, not people • Civilians were barely affected • Most governments wanted to conquer the land and therefore not antagonize the people

Frederick the Great • (1740-1786)

Frederick the Great (1740-1786) • Frederick the Great (1740-1786) • Just the opposite of his father, Frederick William I • Was more interested in the arts than the military • His childhood was not an easy one • Endured mental and physical abuse from his father • In 1730, he and a few friends attempted to escape to England • Frederick William arrested them at the border • Frederick and his friend were found guilty of treason and desertion • They were to be executed • After begging for forgiveness, his father made him watch his friend’s execution

Maria Theresa • (1740-1780)

Maria Theresa (1740-1780) • In 1713, Emperor Charles VI issued the Pragmatic Sanction • It guaranteed the right for Maria Theresa to inherit the Austrian throne and all of Charles’ lands • Most of the European countries accepted this • On October 20, 1740, Charles died • Maria succeeded to the throne • She was the first female heir in the entire Habsburg line • However, by this point, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony refused to accept Maria Theresa as heir

Jenkin’s showing Walpole his ear (1738)

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) • On December 16, 1740, Frederick invaded Silesia • This was part of Bohemia • Violated the Pragmatic Sanction • Frederick argued that it was for the benefit of his state • This led other countries to ignore the Sanction • Bavaria and Saxony put in claims to other Austrian lands • Spain wanted Italy back • France wanted the Austrian Netherlands • Also wanted to eliminate Habsburgs

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) • Most of the major players of Europe were involved in the war as well • On one side was Spain, France and Prussia • On the other Austria, Great Britain, and the United Provinces of the Netherlands • In Europe, France and Prussia dominated • France was able to secure both Bohemia and Austrian Netherlands • Britain was ineffective in stopping those invasions • Maria Theresa was forced to sign a temporary peace with Frederick in 1742

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) • It was fought in the colonies as King George’s War • England dominated with the use of its navy and colonists • Successfully captured the fort at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia • Blockaded the French West Indies • Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) • France and Britain wanted status quo ante bellum • Prussia received Silesia • Austria lost a number of duchies in Italy to Spain • France was forced to give up territory in Austrian Netherlands but did get back Cape Breton Island • Britain gave France back the fort of Louisbourg in Nova Scotia

Modern European History I HIS-106