Tectonics and climate of the Precambrian

1. Tectonics and climate of the Precambrian Geology 103

2. When Did the Solar System Form? • 4.56 billion years ago • How do we know? (evidence for formation) • Lunar samples - 4.5 to 4.6 Ga • Meteorites - 4.56 Ga • Earth – 3.9 (or 4.4 Ga) Lunar meteorite at http://meteorites.wustl.edu/lunar/stones/mac88105.htm Meteorite photo by Carl Allen at http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/Education/Activities/ExpMetMys/..%5C..%5CSlideSets/ExpMetMys/Slides1-9.htm

3. How Did We Get a Solar System? Image: LPI Huge cloud of cold, thinly dispersed interstellar gas and dust – threaded with magnetic fields that resist collapse – solar nebula theory of Swedenborg (1734), Kant (1755) and Laplace (1796). Hubble image at http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/nebula/emission/2006/41/image/a/

4. How Did We Get a Solar System? Image: LPI Concentrations of dust and gas in the cloud; material starts to collect (gravity > magnetic forces) Hubble image at http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/nebula/emission/2005/35/image/a/

5. How Did We Get a Solar System? Gravity concentrates most stuff near center Heat and pressure increase Collapses – central proto-sun rotates faster (probably got initial rotation from the cloud) Image: LPI http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_1.html

6. How Did We Get a Solar System? • Rotating, flattening, contracting disk - solar nebula! • Equatorial Plane • Orbit Direction NASA artwork at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ra4-protoplanetary-disk.jpg

7. How Did We Get a Solar System? • After ~10 million years, material in center of nebula hot enough to fuse H • “...here comes the sun…” NASA/JPL-Caltech Image at http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzer-20060724.html

8. How Did We Get a Solar System? • Metallic elements (Mg, Si, Fe) condense into solids at high temps. Combined with O to make tiny grains • Lower temp (H, He, CH4, H2O, N2, ice) - outer edges • Planetary Compositions Hubble photo at http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/star/protoplanetary-disk/2005/10/image/a/layout/thumb/

9. How Did We Get a Solar System? • Inner Planets: • Hot – Silicate minerals, metals, no light elements, ice • Begin to stick together with dust  clumps Image: LPI http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_3.html

10. How Did We Get a Solar System? • Accretion - particles collide and stick together … or break apart … gravity not involved if small pieces • Form planetesimals, up to a few km across Image: LPI http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_3.html

11. How Did We Get a Solar System? • Gravitational accretion: planetesimals attract stuff • Large protoplanets dominate, grow rapidly, clean up area ( takes ~10 to 25 My) Image: LPI http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_4.html

12. The Precambrian divisions are defined broadly by atmospheric changes • Hadean: Lots of carbon dioxide, water vapor and methane • Archean: Water vapor forms oceans, oxygen starts to be made by photosynthetic organisms • Proterozoic: Significant oxygen in atmosphere, massive drop in carbon dioxide

13. Graphically…

14. Some boundaries coincide with other events Present-day plate tectonics “begins” { Period of heavy bombardment Period of major accretion (~ 10-30 my)

15. Archaen-Proterozoic transition To modern plate tectonics • 1. Early plates became bigger and thicker • 2. Continued recycling of oceanic crust • formed large amounts of buoyant • continental crust • Continued partial melting/distillation • Separation of Si and other elements from • Mg and Fe • Conversion of mafic material to felsic • material through rock cycle • 3. Decrease in heat production slowed mantle • convection • Drove system to larger convection cells • Allowed larger plates to travel farther • on the Earth’s surface and cool more • Led to subduction rather than collision of • plates • Modern plate tectonics Present-day plate tectonics “begins” period of rapid crustal growth { Period of heavy bombardment Period of major accretion (~ 10-30 my)

16. The Witwatersrand (South Africa) goldfields

17. Evidence against the theory • Not all gold deposits are the same age • Clearly, some other mechanism deposits gold in this fashion – anoxic inland seas?

18. More evidence for atmospheric change in Archean • Banded iron formations (BIFs) are interlayered alternating chert (jasper) and iron oxide • Mostly found in Archean, some in Proterozoic, almost none in the Phanerozoic

19. Mechanism for generating BIFs

20. Since the Archaean • Intensity of plate tectonics has varied over time • Wilson cycles – 500 my cycles • Evidence of a supercontinent at 600-900 my (Rodinia) • Pangea formed ~ 300 my • Periods of rapid sea floor spreading (and vice versa) • Sea level rises because large amounts of shallow basalt form and don’t cool (and subside) much • High CO2 release – released at spreading centers when new crust forms and subducting crust has sediment on it including calcite which releases CO2 when it melts

21. Meanwhile, plate tectonics settles down • Archean rocks worldwide are of only two types: granite/gneiss complexes (a high-grade metamorphic rock) and intervening greenstones (metamorphosed basalt and some sedimentary rock) • Superior province in North America is among the biggest in the world

22. What does a greenstone belt remind you of?

23. But still different than today’s plate tectonics • Komatiites are ultramafic igneous rocks that are common in the Precambrian but unknown today • Hotter mantle? • Wetter mantle? • Diamonds!

24. First continents form and stick around

25. So, by the Proterozoic… • Division between Archean and Proterozoic is based on oxidizing conditions found in surface waters (1.8 by) • Tectonics is more similar to today’s; evidence for rifting and subduction and terrane accretion

26. What evidence exists for Rodinia? • Grenville orogeny rocks (sometimes called “mobile belts”), originally defined to explain Canadian shield rocks, were found to exist on many other continents • All this mountain-building implies some large-scale tectonic event, like a supercontinent (name was suggested in the 1990s) • Rodinia is constructed at 1.1 by, rifts apart by 0.85 by

27. The Grenville orogeny rocks • Primarily marine sandstones and carbonates (limestones) • No bioturbation • Since then, these rocks have been metamorphosed, but the original rock is easily inferred

28. Conventional reconstruction • Line up all the Grenville orogenic belts and create the supercontinent • Note that Antarctica and the US (Laurentia) are quite separated

29. The SWEAT hypothesis • Rodinia joined the southwest (SW) US (West Texas, specifically) with eastern Antarctica (EAT) • Shown through lead isotope measurements of similar age rocks that were part of a rift in both areas • Key point: there was not just one zone of orogeny as in the conventional theory

30. Precambrian climate • Positions of continents, especially existence of polar continents, determines when ice ages occur

31. Positive feedback • If glaciers can build extensively to within 30° of the equator, the extensive ice will reflect a large portion of the Sun’s energy back into space, cooling the surface and allowing more glaciers to grow • “Icehouse Earth” or “Snowball Earth” hypothesis (W. Brian Harland, Cambridge, 1964)

32. How to get out of the Icehouse • Joe Kirschvink (Caltech, 1992) argued that volcanic activity and carbon dioxide production would not cease even during an Icehouse event, and nothing would “scrub” the carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect

33. More detail about CO2 scrubbing

34. Life alters as Rodinia breaks up • Ediacaran fauna appears – first evidence of multicellular life • No hard parts, preserved as molds • Unclear if they are truly related to modern phyla, or represent extinct phyla • Ediacaran period is a recognized division of the Proterozoic eon (630 – 542 my)