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Gender, Employment, and Migration. Joyce P. Jacobsen Wesleyan University 9 December 2005 Rabat, Morocco. Topics. Statistical comparisons Extensions to standard analysis Research wish list. Statistical comparisons.
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Gender, Employment, and Migration Joyce P. Jacobsen Wesleyan University 9 December 2005 Rabat, Morocco
Topics • Statistical comparisons • Extensions to standard analysis • Research wish list
Statistical comparisons • How do Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia fare relative to other countries (MENA and other regions) on a variety of standard gender-disaggregated measures? • What other measures can we calculate? • What other gender-disaggregated data would we like to see these countries collect?
Standard labor market benchmarks of gender equality • labor force participation rates • employment and unemployment rates • hours worked • earnings rates • occupational and industrial distribution and segregation indexes
Occupational segregation indexes • Algeria 55, Morocco 18, Tunisia 11 • Compare to range of 23 to 45 for industrialized countries • Big move out of agriculture, into services, in all three countries for both women and men
Standard social development benchmarks for gender equality • maternal mortality rates • fertility rates • infant and child mortality rates • life expectancy (standard and health-adjusted) • illiteracy rates • schooling rates
Maternal mortality rates have dropped, but still high • Tunisia 120, Algeria 140, Morocco 220 • compare to Spain 5, U.S. 14, France 17
Infant mortality rates have dropped, but still high • Tunisia 24 , Morocco 38, Algeria 42 • compare to France 4.5, Spain 4.5, U.S. 7
Illiteracy rates have dropped but still high, and show gender gap
Also: • Ratio of military expenditure to combined public expenditure on education and health, 1986: Algeria 23%, Morocco 86%, Tunisia 82% Compare to LAC 29%, Sub-Saharan Africa 70%, South Asia 164%, MENA 166% low-income countries in general: 116%
And: • Armed forces as a percentage of teachers, 1986: Algeria 71%, Morocco 102%, Tunisia 55% Compare to LAC 42%, South Asia 47%, Sub-Saharan Africa 90%, MENA 183% low-income countries in general: 60%
Indexes of Development • HDI • GDI (gender-disaggregated HDI) • GEM (gender empowerment measure) • FEM (female endangerment measure)
FEM rank (out of 17 MENA countries) • proposed by the Economic Research Forum for the Arab Countries, Iran, and Turkey (ERF) • FEM equally weights female illiteracy, fertility, and maternal mortality rates • Tunisia 6th, Algeria 9th, Morocco 13th • compare to GEM rank: Tunisia 1st, Morocco 4th, Algeria 9th
Punch lines: • Investment in health and education pays off, as measured in development indexes directly, and indirectly through higher formal labor market participation for women • Increased education, decreased infant, child, and maternal mortality, decreased fertility, increased adult health all link to increased women’s labor force participation
Closing the remaining education gender gap is doable • Closing the remaining gender gap in primary education would be low-cost • In Morocco, < 0.4% of GNP • In Tunisia, < 0.2% of GNP • In Algeria, probably between these two figures based on enrollment numbers
What about migration? • All three countries are labor exporters: net migration ratios (per 1000 population) Algeria -.37 (ranked 153 of 225 countries) Tunisia -.54 (rank 160) Morocco -.92 (rank 169) • Morocco and Tunisia generate large remittance streams
What about migration? (contd.) • Brain drain substantial: most migrants to OECD from Morocco (65%) and Tunisia (64%) have tertiary education; migration rates for tertiary educated are over six times as high as for secondary educated But: On all these points, gender dimension is not clear Worldwide, migrants are 49% female
Caveats and additions to WB MENA Report • The paradox of occupational gender segregation • Taking gender seriously means also thinking about how ways in which men and boys may be disadvantaged • How to handle demilitarization? • Transnational migrant flows a mixed deal
Research wish list • time use data • regular, ongoing household surveys • an ongoing panel survey • better migration data • all statistics gender-disaggregated • include (even oversample) minority groups and gender-disaggregate • disaggregate by location as well
Exemplary commitments to gender-disaggregated data • Statistics Sweden • Statistics Canada • Philippines National Statistical Coordination Board
General Data Sources • ILO for labor force/employment statistics • IOM for migration statistics • UNDP for development statistics • World Bank for development statistics • WHO for health statistics
4 Specific Sources • World Bank: MENA Development Report, 2004 • E. Mine Cinar (ed.) The Economics of Women and Work in the Middle East and North Africa, 2001 • FEMISE report on Maghreb textile sector, October 2005 • Sorensen paper on Moroccan remittances, June 2004
General Sources • Jacobsen, The Economics of Gender, 2nd edition, 1998 (3rd ed. forthcoming) • Jacobsen, “What About Us? Men’s Issues in Development,” report for the World Bank’s LAC Gender team, May 2002 (can get from my webpage: http://jjacobsen.web.wesleyan.edu) or email me at jjacobsen@wesleyan.edu