MODULE 2 Meaning and discourse in English

1. MODULE 2 Meaning and discourse in English DISCOURSE TOPIC AND ORGANISATION Lesson 16

2. PART 1 DISCOURSE TOPIC

3. The problem of deciding what something “is about” • Where does one part of a conversation end and another begin? • For DA the notion of topic is “an intuitively satisfactory way of describing the unifying principle which makes one stretch of discourse “about” something and the next stretch “about” something else” (Brown & Yule, 1983: 70)

4. What is “topic”? • Nunan (1993: 125). Topic is “the subject matter of a text.” • The concept of topic is elusive; different scholars use it to refer to different phenomena, from a constituent of a clause to propositions of a text. • There is no widely accepted definition.

5. Existing definitions of Topic Defining topic from the viewpoint of form, structure Defining topic from the viewpoint of content

6. Form/structure-based definitions • 1. Grammar: topic = subject • 2. Structural boundaries (paragraphs / paratones)

7. 1. Topic = Subject • A traditional grammatical analysis of a sentence: subject and predicate : Example 1 Subject Predicate Mary saw John. • Topic and comment are related to the subject and the predicate of the sentence: Example 1 Topic Comment Mary saw John.

8. 2. Structural boundaries Analysts have been attempting to identify chunks that can represent different topic - topic boundaries which indicate the start and the completion of different topics or topic shifts. • Written discourse – paragraphs. BUT Paragraphs can be formed for the sake of appearance and design of the page.

9. Content-based definitions • Summative topic • Topic framework

10. Semantic approachsummative topic • Keenan & Schieffelin: discourse topic is not simply a NP or a sentence. It is the proposition (expressed as a phrase or a sentence), about which the claim is made or elicited (similar to the title of discourse). Example 2 Peter is going to Paris next week Van Dijk: discourse topic summarizes, reduces, organizes and categorizes the semantic information of discourse: Semantic representation of the topic of this sentence: go to (Peter, Paris e & next week (e).

11. Problem with summative topic This semantic approach is like writing a proposition/headline which summarises a text. However, it is sometimes difficult to do this kind of summary…. Example 3 The original title: Pedestrians look away as stabbed man bleeds. • If there is a large number of different ways of expressing the topic of even a short text, how can we determine which one is the correct one?

12. Discourse approachTopic framework • Brown and Yule: the idea of topic framework; • A topic framework depends on which feature of context becomes activated in a particular piece of discourse. Example 4 (From the movie “Schindler’s List”)

13. Topic framework • What is the topic of the episode?: ”Schindler needs some space?” “Germans decline the offer?” • The speakers discuss several things: Schindler’s products, Schindler’s problem of space, Germans inability to help, Schindler offers to buy, Christmas presents

14. Topic framework for this episode • Schindler’s factory, 4 participants: Schindler (has a factory, produces goods for the German Army), Kuhnpast and Hohne (army offices, have no space), Stern (secretary), lack of space, K. and H. can’t help, S. offers to buy, K and H decline, Christmas presents

15. Topic framework • The final topic framework would represent a combination of elements derived from the activated physical context (time and place, facts about the speaker and the hearer), and from the discourse fragment itself (people, places, entities, events, facts, etc.) often previously mentioned in the discourse.

16. How topics are developed Speaking topically vs. speaking on the topic Gender and discourse topic

17. Relevance of conversational contributions • Once topic framework elements and the correlation between the elements have been identified, judgments about relevance of contributions to the conversation by the participants can be made.

18. Relevance of conversational contributions • Gricean maxim of relevance: participants of the conversation have to make their contributions relevant in terms of the existing topic framework or they are expected to be speaking topically; • Participants are speaking topically when they pick up the phrases form the preceding speaker and include them into their contribution.

19. Example of speaking topically Example 5 A: When did you last speak to Jan? B: I’m not sure. About a week ago. Why? A: I’ve heard from C that shehas got engaged /…/ (participant A provides the reason)

20. Relevance of conversational contributions • Lexical cohesion is a sign that the discourse topic is being maintained Example 6 Sealsare carnivorous with a difference. Most carnivorous live on land. Seals, however, live in the water, coming on landonly to test and to breed. There are some seals that actually mate in water but even so, the females have to come on landto give birth to their young, which are called pups. When seals come out of land in large numbers to mate and to give birth, those placesare called rookeries.

21. Speaking topically and speaking on the topic • There are situations, where participants have to concentrate on a particular issue (e.g. a debate, the President’s speech). • When participants ignore the previous speaker’s contribution, they are often speaking on the topic.

22. Development of topic • Topics are often not negotiated beforehand. • Schiffrin: the structure “there + be + ITEM” helps to manage transition from one topic to another (see example)

23. Topic Shiftmoving from topic to topic Example 8 (Schiffrin, 1994: 262) • I mean, in those days there was no such thing as relief. • You had to make a livin’, y’ know. • And they had free soup houses. • There’s a place up on Francis Avenue here, oh about three miles up. • That’s still in existence yet. • They se- they go in there and they make- give you soup, for free.

24. Gender influence on choice of topic • Some topics are more interesting to women than to men and vice versa • Women are normally more interactive than men. What one woman proposes as a topic is progressively built upon by another woman. • Women normally put more effort into maintaining solidarity during interaction than men: they try to avoid conflict and minimize face threats. • Women concentrate more in general on the expressive implications of what is said than men do.

25. What to look for when analysing topic • Physical context and topic framework (as “activated” physical context) • Speaking topically and deviations from speaking topically (focus on why the participants deviate from speaking topically) • Development of topic in a conversation; topic boundaries • Gender and the choice of topic by the speakers

26. PART 2 DISCOURSE ORGANISATION

27. Perspective • Every text or image has a perspective (or point of view) and the discourse analyst needs to understand what that perspective is

28. Controlling perspective • Topicalisation • Thematisation • Staging This refers to the way in which the speaker/writer controls perspective on what is spoken/written

29. Controlling perspective - what is the ‘point of departure’? • ‘Every clause, sentence, paragraph, discourse is organised around an element that is taken as its point of departure’ When you analyse a text you need to decide what this ‘point of departure’ is

30. Controlling perspective - Marking • Writers and speakers want to control perspective and so they highlight certain things • This highlighting is called ‘marking’ • It is important for the text analyst to identify what is marked and what is unmarked

31. Linearization problem • One speaker can only produce one word at a time. • The speaker/writer orders the words into clauses, clauses into sentences, sentences into texts. • The speaker faces the so-called linearization problem –choosing the beginning point. • The interpretation of discourse will vary depending on what information comes first.

32. Primacy • Often the first elements in a text are marked • We tend to focus on what comes first in a text (primacy effect) so analysing the first elements in a text is very important

33. Marking the perspective (1) • Jim borrowed Fred’s hammer This is about Jim • Fred lent Jim his hammer This is about Fred

34. Marking the perspective (2) 3. Mary entered the restaurant. The waiter was polishing the glasses. This is about Mary 4. A customer came into the restaurant. Alphonse was polishing glasses. This is about Alphonse

35. How is the perspective changed in n.3 and 4? • Use of names (Mary, Alphonse) instead of noun phrases (a customer, the waiter) • Use of verbs expressing point of view entered = perspective OUTSIDE the room (i.e. from Mary’s point of view) came = perspective INSIDE the room (i.e. from Alphons’es point of view

36. The effect of previous text - the co-text • I like Sally Binns. She’s tall and thin and walks like a crane. We have a positive interpretation because of I like • I dislike Sally Binns. She’s tall and thin and walks like a crane. We have a negative interpretation because of I dislike NO SENTENCE IS NEUTRAL. A PREVIOUS TEXT ALWAYS HAS AN EFFECT ON OUR INTERPRETATION

37. MARKED AND UNMARKED“the farmer” is marked“what the farmer did” is marked It was lunchtime. A storm was arriving. The farmer called the ducks Nobody knew what the farmer wanted to do. What the farmer did was call the ducks.

38. CLEFT SENTENCESCleft sentences are used in three main ways • IDENTIFYING - “what is disturbing the American administration at the moment is …” • SUMMARY - “what I have tried to show you is … • CONTRAST - “Many religions are attractive. What is unique about Catholicism is …”

39. NARRATIVEThe thematic structure is based on TEMPORAL ORDERING using time adverbials • Late that afternoon she received a telegram • Without hesitating, Betty replied …. • An hour later, a pleasant middle-aged woman arrived …

40. OBITUARY The obituary is a particular type of text (a genre)The thematic structure of the obituary is based on TIME (the chronological order of events) • Mr William Selby, who died aged 85 on Sept. 20, was …. • He went to school … • During the 2nd World War he … • In 1926 he married

41. HOLIDAY BROCHURE another particular type of text (genre) The thematic structure of the holiday brochure is based on PLACE • On some islands it is best if you … • In Greece and Turkey you are … • In all other places … • In some centres we have … • On a few islands you have

42. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE?Who do you think is the writer in each case? Why do writers make different lexical choices? • Mary Queen of Scots was executed by the English Queen • Mary was assassinated by the English • Mary of Scotland was murdered by her cousin Elizabeth

43. LEXICAL SELECTIONTexts are not neutral. Words are always chosen by writers, whether in a conscious or unconscious wayLexical choice controls the EMPATHY of the reader/listener. This is very important in political discourse (e.g. the arguments about history textbooks) • Mary Queen of Scots vs. Mary vs. Mary of Scotland • executed vs. assassinated vs. murdered • The English Queen vs. The English vs. her cousin Elizabeth

44. TEXT Mary Queen of Scots … Mary was …. Mary of Scotland was … INTERPRETATION Legal process sanctioned by constitutional monarch Political motivation, attributed to nation Mary represents Scotland, illegal act, worse because of family obligations SAME EVENTS - DIFFERENT RESPONSE

45. CONTROLLING PERSPECTIVE (Staging)You need to consider all these organisational factors when you are analysing a text • TITLES (to prepare reader expectations) • FIRST UTTERANCE/LEFTMOST WORD • THEME/TOPIC (what text is about) • FIRST PARAGRAPH • SEQUENCING (what come first, second ..) • LEXICAL SELECTION • SYNTACTIC SELECTION