Relate Mendel’s two laws to the results he obtained in his experiments with garden peas.

1. Section Objectives: • Relate Mendel’s two laws to the results he obtained in his experiments with garden peas. • Predict the possible offspring of a genetic cross by using a Punnett square • .

2. Nature vs. Nurture Revisited • The most shocking surprise that emerged from the full sequence of the human genome earlier this year is that we are the proud owners of a paltry 30,000 genes—barely twice the number of a fruit fly. • After a decade of hype surrounding the Human Genome Project, this unexpected result led some journalists to a stunning conclusion. The seesaw struggle between our genes (nature) and the environment (nurture) had swung sharply in favor of nurture.

3. Chromosomes- Genes- Traits • A gene gives only the potential for the development of a trait. • How this potential is achieved depends partly on the interaction of the gene with other genes. But it also depends partly on theenvironment. • For example, a person may have a genetic tendency toward being overweight. But the person's actual weight will depend on such environmental factors as how what kinds of food the person eats and how much exercise that person does.

4. Cells- Chromosomes- Genes- Traits • Differences in genes (Proteins) due to the nitrogen base pair sequence, cause different traits such as hair color or blood types. • Proteins (build and repair body tissues, regulate body processes and formation of enzymes and hormones) are made of smaller units called amino acids.

5. Section 2 Check Homologous Chromosome 4 The two chromosomes of each pair in a diploid cell are called homologous chromosomes. Each has genes for the same traits. a A Terminal Axial Inflated D d Constricted T t Short Tall

6. Genes lined up on chromosome like beads on necklace Each gene controls different traits Each sperm and egg are different Each trait has more than one possible type/form (allele) [ex. Tall/short] Genes on Chromosomes

7. Meiosis Haploid gametes (n=23) What is the importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction? produces haploid gametes. Sperm Cell Meiosis Egg Cell Fertilization Diploid zygote (2n=46) Multicellular diploid adults (2n=46) Mitosis and Development

8. Sex cells Eggs & Sperm ½ #= Haploid # 23 chromosomes Not paired meiosis Mendelian Inheritance All living things can pass traits to offspring • Body cells • 23 PAIRS • 46 chromosomes • Mitosis

9. Study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring Genetic Code carries DNA blueprint for Physical traits inherited by offspring Heredity- the passing of traits from parent to offspring Genes- controls inheritance of traits Traits- characteristics ½ from each parent in sex cells What is Genetics

10. Monk and teacher. He crossed thousands of plants and kept careful records for eight years Only studied one trait at a time in an exp. Carefully chose species to observe based on Discovered some of the basic laws of heredity. ID dominant & recessive traits Predicted % offspring Traits inherited indepently Presentation to the Science Society in1866 went unnoticed. He died in 1884 with his work still unnoticed. His work rediscovered in 1900. Gregor Mendel Father of Genetics-OVERVIEW

11. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Mendel was a careful researcher • He studied only one trait at a time to control variables, and he analyzed his data mathematically. • The tall pea plants he worked with were from populations of plants that had been tall for many generations and had always produced tall offspring.

12. Observed 7 traits with two forms • tall or short • round or wrinkled • yellow or green

13. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Mendel chose his subject carefully • Mendel chose to use the garden pea in his experiments for several reasons. • Garden pea plants reproduce sexually, which means that they produce male and female sex cells, called gametes.

14. Sexual Reproduction • He noticed that peas are easy to breed because they reproduce sexually, which means that they produce male and female sex cells, called gametes • In a process called fertilization, the male gamete unites with the female gamete. • The resulting fertilized cell, called a zygotethen develops into a seed • The transfer of pollen grains from a male reproductive organ to a female reproductive organ in a plant is called pollination.

15. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Mendel chose his subject carefully • This process is called cross-pollination. • By using this technique, Mendel could be sure of the parents in his cross.

16. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Mendel chose his subject carefully • When he wanted to breed, or cross, one plant with another, Mendel opened the petals of a flower and removed the male organs. Remove male parts

17. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Mendel chose his subject carefully • He then dusted the female organ with pollen from the plant he wished to cross it with. Pollen grains Transfer pollen Female part Male parts Cross-pollination

18. Mendel’s Experiments • Mendel’s first experiments are called monohybrid crosses because mono means “one” and the two parent plants differed from each other by a single trait—height. • He experimentally crosses different strains to develop hybrids. • He then crossed the hybrids and analyzed the results.

19. He crossed pure strains by putting the pollen (male gamete) from one purebred pea plant on the pistil (female sex organ) of another purebred pea plant to form a hybrid or crossbred. Mendel ‘s pea plants When purebred tall plants were crossed with purebred short plants the first generation plants were all tall. • When these tall offspring were crossed the result was a ratio of 3 tall to 1 short.

20. REVIEW • He studied only one trait at a time to control variables, and he analyzed his data mathematically. • The tall pea plants he worked with were from populations of plants that had been tall for many generations and had always produced tall offspring. • called the pure strains purebreds. • He developed pure strains of peas for seven different traits (i.e. tall or short, round or wrinkled, yellow or green, etc.) • He crossed these pure strains to produce hybrids.

21. Dominant Traits RULE • Strong Hereditary traits cover weak traits. • Mendal called stronger traits • DOMINANT • Mendal called weaker traits • recessive • Dominant traits are represented by capital letters (T) while recessive traits are represented by lower case letters (t). try and follow the diagram on the next slide while keeping the DOMINANT and recessive letters in mind. ( TT) (tt )

22. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The second generation • The original parents, the true-breeding plants, are known as the P1 generation. • The offspring of the parent plants are known as the F1 generation. • When you cross two F1 plants with each other, their offspring are the F2 generation.

23. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The first generation • Mendel selected a six-foot-tall pea plant that came from a population of pea plants, all of which were over six feet tall. • He cross-pollinated this tall pea plant with pollen from a short pea plant. • All of the offspring grew to be as tall as the taller parent.

24. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The second generation • Mendel allowed the tall plants in this first generation to self-pollinate. • After the seeds formed, he planted them and counted more than 1000 plants in this second generation. • Three-fourths of the plants were as tall as the tall plants in the parent and first generations.

25. The second generation Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Seed shape Flower color Pod color Seed color Flower position Pod shape Plant height Dominant trait axial (side) purple yellow round green tall inflated Recessive trait terminal (tips) green short white yellow wrinkled constricted

26. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The second generation • In every case, he found that one trait of a pair seemed to disappear in the F1 generation, only to reappear unchanged in one-fourth of the F2 plants.

27. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The rule of unit factors • Mendel concluded that each organism has two factors that control each of its traits. • We now know that these factors are genes and that they are located on chromosomes. • Genes exist in alternative forms. We call these different gene forms alleles.

28. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The rule of unit factors • An organism’s two alleles are located on different copies of a chromosome—one inherited from the female parent and one from the male parent.

29. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The rule of dominance • Mendel called the observed trait dominant and the trait that disappeared recessive. • Mendel concluded that the allele for tall plants is dominant to the allele for short plants.

30. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The rule of dominance • When recording the results of crosses, it is customary to use the same letter for different alleles of the same gene. Short plant Tall plant t t T T t T F1 All tall plants t T

31. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The rule of dominance • An uppercase letter is used for the dominant allele and a lowercase letter for the recessive allele. Short plant Tall plant t t T T t T F1 • The dominant allele is always written first. All tall plants t T

32. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The law of segregation • The law of segregation states that every individual has two alleles of each gene and when gametes are produced, each gamete receives one of these alleles. • During fertilization, these gametes randomly pair to produce four combinations of alleles.

33. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Phenotypes and Genotypes Law of segregation Tt´Tt cross • Two organisms can look alike but have different underlying allele combinations. F1 Tall plant Tall plant T t t T F2 Tall Tall Tall Short t t t t T T T T 3 1

34. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Phenotypes and Genotypes • The way an organism looks and behaves is called its phenotype. • The allele combination an organism contains is known as its genotype. • An organism’s genotype can’t always be known by its phenotype.

35. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Phenotypes and Genotypes • An organism is homozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait are the same. • The true-breeding tall plant that had two alleles for tallness (TT) would be homozygous for the trait of height.

36. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Phenotypes and Genotypes • An organism is heterozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait differ from each other. • Therefore, the tall plant that had one allele for tallness and one allele for shortness (Tt) is heterozygous for the trait of height.

37. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Mendel’s Dihybrid Crosses • Mendel performed another set of crosses in which he used peas that differed from each other in two traits rather than only one. • Such a cross involving two different traits is called a dihybrid cross.

38. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The first generation • Mendel took true-breeding pea plants that had round yellow seeds (RRYY) and crossed them with true-breeding pea plants that had wrinkled green seeds (rryy). • He already knew the round-seeded trait was dominant to the wrinkled-seeded trait. • He also knew that yellow was dominant to green.

39. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The first generation Dihybrid Cross round yellow x wrinkled green P1 Wrinkled green Round yellow All round yellow F1 F2 9 3 3 1 Round green Wrinkled yellow Round yellow Wrinkled green

40. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The second generation • Mendel then let the F1 plants pollinate themselves. • He found some plants that produced round yellow seeds and others that produced wrinkled green seeds. • He also found some plants with round green seeds and others with wrinkled yellow seeds.

41. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The second generation • He found they appeared in a definite ratio of phenotypes—9 round yellow: 3 round green: 3 wrinkled yellow: 1 wrinkled green.

42. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 The law of independent assortment • Mendel’s second law states that genes for different traits—for example, seed shape and seed color—are inherited independently of each other. • This conclusion is known as the law of independent assortment.

43. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Punnett Squares • In 1905, Reginald Punnett, an English biologist, devised a shorthand way of finding the expected proportions of possible genotypes in the offspring of a cross. • This method is called a Punnett square.

44. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Punnett Squares • If you know the genotypes of the parents, you can use a Punnett square to predict the possible genotypes of their offspring.

45. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Monohybrid crosses • A Punnett square for this cross is two boxes tall and two boxes wide because each parent can produce two kinds of gametes for this trait. Heterozygous tall parent T t T t T t T T TT Tt t t Tt tt T t Heterozygous tall parent

46. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Monohybrid crosses • The two kinds of gametes from one parent are listed on top of the square, and the two kinds of gametes from the other parent are listed on the left side. Heterozygous tall parent T t T t T t T T TT Tt t t Tt tt T t Heterozygous tall parent

47. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Monohybrid crosses • It doesn’t matter which set of gametes is on top and which is on the side. • Each box is filled in with the gametes above and to the left side of that box. You can see that each box then contains two alleles—one possible genotype. • After the genotypes have been determined, you can determine the phenotypes.

48. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Punnett Square of Dihybrid Cross Dihybrid crosses Gametes from RrYy parent Ry RY rY ry • A Punnett square for a dihybrid cross will need to be four boxes on each side for a total of 16 boxes. RRYy RRYY RrYY RrYy RY RRYy RRYy RrYy Rryy Ry Gametes from RrYy parent rrYy RrYY RrYy rrYY rY RrYy rrYy Rryy rryy ry

49. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Punnett Square of Dihybrid Cross Dihybrid crosses Gametes from RrYy parent Ry RY rY ry RRYy RRYY RrYY RrYy RY F1 cross: RrYy ´ RrYy RRYy RRYy RrYy Rryy round yellow Ry Gametes from RrYy parent round green rrYy RrYY RrYy rrYY rY wrinkled yellow RrYy rrYy Rryy rryy ry wrinkled green

50. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Probability • In reality you don’t get the exact ratio of results shown in the square. • That’s because, in some ways, genetics is like flipping a coin—it follows the rules of chance. • The probability or chance that an event will occur can be determined by dividing the number of desired outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes.