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Chemistry 9th ed. 2009 Whitten, Davis, Peck, Stanley Thomson Books/Cole 代理商 偉明圖書有限公司

Chemistry 9th ed. 2009 Whitten, Davis, Peck, Stanley Thomson Books/Cole 代理商 偉明圖書有限公司 02-2363-8586 范先生. Chapter 1 The Foundations of Chemistry. Chapter Outline. Matter and Energy 物質與能量 Chemistry – A Molecular View of Matter States of Matter Chemical and Physical Properties 化學與物理性質

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Chemistry 9th ed. 2009 Whitten, Davis, Peck, Stanley Thomson Books/Cole 代理商 偉明圖書有限公司

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  1. Chemistry9th ed. 2009 Whitten, Davis, Peck, Stanley Thomson Books/Cole 代理商 偉明圖書有限公司 02-2363-8586 范先生

  2. Chapter 1The Foundations of Chemistry

  3. Chapter Outline • Matter and Energy 物質與能量 • Chemistry – A Molecular View of Matter • States of Matter • Chemical and Physical Properties 化學與物理性質 • Chemical and Physical Changes 化學與物理變化 • Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements • Measurements in Chemistry • Units of Measurement • Use of Numbers • The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis) • Percentage 百分比 • Density and Specific Gravity 密度與比重 • Heat and Temperature • Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat

  4. Chemistry is everywhere Tent → plastic Steel cooking grate →alloy of iron and carbon Trees → Photochemical reaction → CO2 + H2O → carbohydrate Our bodies →inorganic and bioorganic compounds …...

  5. Chemistry • the science that describes matter— • properties, • the changes it undergoes, • the energy changes that accompany those processes 研究物質的特性,組成,結構和變化的科學 • Organic Chemistry 有機化學 Inorganic Chemistry 無機化學 Analytical Chemistry 分析化學… • Physical Chemistry 物理化學 Biochemistry 生物化學…

  6. 1-1 Matter and Energy • Matter • Mass • Occupies space • Energy: The capacity to do work or transfer heat Kinetic energy & Potential energy 動能 位能 Exothermic & Endothermic 放熱 吸熱

  7. The Law of Conservation of Matter 物質不滅定律 There is no observable change in the quantity of matter during a chemical reaction or during a physical change. 無論物質經過任何化學變化或物理變化,其反應物的總質量和產物的總質量相同 鎂燃燒生成氧化鎂 Fig. 1-1, p. 4

  8. The Law of Conservation of Matter • 物質不滅定律 • The law of Conservation of Energy • 能量不滅定律 • Energy cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction or in a physical change. It can only be converted from one form to another • The Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy 質能不滅定律 • The combined amount of matter and energy in the universe is fixed • Einstein’s Relativity • E=mc2

  9. Dalton’s Atomic Theory道耳吞原子學說 (in 1808) 1-2 Chemistry –A molecular View of Matter • 所有的物質都是由極小的微粒所組成, 稱之為原子 (atom) • 不同元素 (element)的原子不同, 但同一元素所含的原子均相同 • 原子是組成物質的最小粒子,不能再分割 • 化學反應是物質中原子的重新排列或組合 • 不同元素的原子形成化合物 (compound)時,原子間的比例為一固定的簡單整數比 Fig1-2 Relative size for atoms of the noble gases Fig. 1-2, p. 6

  10. 物質的基本粒子 電子 質子 中子 The basic building blocks of atoms Table 1-1, p. 6

  11. Atomic number 原子序 the number of protons in the nucleus Silver p. 7

  12. A molecule分子is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can have a stable independent existence Fig 1-3 Models of diatomicmoleculesof some elements, approximately to scale. There are called space-filling models (比例模型) because they show the atoms with their approximate relative size Others: N2, Cl2, Br2, I2 Fig. 1-3, p. 7

  13. polyatomic molecules Fig 1-4 (a) A model of the P4 molecule of white phosphorus. (b) A model of the S8 ring found in rhombic sulfur (c) Top view of the S8 ring in rhombic sulfur Fig. 1-4, p. 7

  14. Compound 化合物 甲烷 乙醇 Fig 1-5 Formulas and ball-and-stick models for molecules of some compounds. Ball-and-stick (球棍模型) models represent the atoms as a smaller spheres than in space-filling models, in order to show the chemical bonds between the atoms as “stick” Fig. 1-5, p. 8

  15. Using the Scanning tunneling Microscope National Institute of Science and Technology logo Cobalt atoms on a copper surface 34 iron atoms arranged on a copper surface Fig. 1-6a, p. 8

  16. Atom 原子 • the smallest particle of an element that maintains its chemical identity through all chemical and physical change • Molecule 分子 • the smallest particles of an element or compound thatcan have a stable independent existence • Element 元素 • a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substance by chemical means • Compound 化合物 • composed two or more different elements in fixed proportions can be decomposed into their constituent elements

  17. atom molecule element compound Example 1-1 Models i. Krypton 氪 ii. ethane 乙烷 iii. Nitrogen 氮 v. Sulfur dioxide 二氧化硫 iv. Aspirin阿斯匹靈 vi. Copper 銅 p. 8

  18. 1-3Sates of Matter Iodine 碘 Bromine 溴 Chlorine 氯 (g) (l) (s) Fig 1-7 p. 9

  19. Example 1-2 Models Solid (s) Gas (g) Liquid (l) p. 9

  20. 1-4Chemical and Physical Properties • Chemical properties • Chemical change  changes in composition • 鎂燃燒生成氧化鎂 • Physical properties • Absence of any change of composition • color, density, hardness, melting point, boiling point, and electrical and thermal conductivities • State change (ice-water-steam) • Extensive Properties 外延性質 • Depends on the amount of material in a sample • 與尺度有關之性質,如重量、體積、熱... .. • Intensive Properties 內涵性質 • Independent of the amount of material in a sample • 與尺寸無關之性質,如密度、顏色、黏度、壓力、 溫度、濃度 ….. No two different substances have identical sets of chemical and physical properties

  21. Physical Changes Occur among the three states of matter 昇華/沉澱 蒸發/凝結 Endothermic (absorb heat) 冷凍/溶化 Exothermic (release heat) Fig. 1-8, p. 11

  22. Water • Physical properties: • melts at 0oC • boils at 100oC • dissolves a wide range of substances Chemical properties: (d) water reacts violently with sodium to form hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide Fig. 1-9a, p. 12

  23. 醋酸 苯 溴 鐵 甲烷 氧氣 氯化鈉 Table 1-2, p. 12

  24. 1-5Chemical and physical changes • Chemical change • One or more substances are used up • One or more new substances are formed • Energy is absorbed or released • Physical change • No change in chemical composition • Change in energy solid liquid liquid gas Fig. 1-10, p. 13

  25. 1-6 Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements • Mixture • have variable composition • May be separated by physical methods • components retain its properties • Mixture of different components may have widely different properties Heterogeneous mixture 非均勻混合物 • Do not have same composition throughout • Components are distinguishable • Salt and charcoal, foggy air, vegetable soup Homogeneous mixture (solution) • Have same composition throughout • Components are indistinguishable • Salt water, alloys, air Galena(方鉛礦)and quartz (石英) p. 13

  26. A mixture of iron and sulfur is a heterogeneous mixture It ca be separated by physical means, such as removing the iron with magnet Fig. 1-11a, p. 15

  27. Fig. 1-12, p. 15

  28. Chemical decomposition of liquid water (11.1%) Water as a compound!! (88.9%) Electrolysis apparatusfor small-scale chemical decomposition of water by electric energy Fig. 1-13, p. 16

  29. Compound Heat Compound Carbon dioxide Compound Calcium Oxide elements elements Fig 1-14 Diagram of the decomposition of calcium carbonate A compound is a pure substance consisting of two or more different elements in a fixed ratio Law of definite Proportions 定比定律 (Law of Constant Composition) Fig. 1-14, p. 17

  30. The physical and chemical propertiesof a compoundare different from the properties of its constituent elements • Sodium Chloride (NaCl) • White solid • This compound is formed by the combination of sodium and chloride • Sodium • A soft, silvery white metal • Chloride • A pale green, corrosive, poisonous gas • Na + Cl  NaCl • Light and Heat Produce Fig. 1-15, p. 17

  31. 銀 氟 鎳 鋁 鐵 氧 金 氫 磷 硼 氦 鉛 鋇 汞 鉑 鉍 碘 硫 溴 鉀 鍗 碳 氪 矽 鈣 鋰 錫 鎘 鎂 鍶 氯 錳 鈦 鈷 氮 鈾 鉻 鈉 鎢 銅 氖 鋅 Table 1-3, p. 18

  32. No biological role Living matter 10/88 naturally occurring elements make up more than 99% by mass Table 1-4, p. 18

  33. 1-7 Measurements in Chemistry The international System of Units(SI) metric system 公制 長度 質量 時間 電流 溫度 絕對溫標 發光強度 燭光 莫耳數 克分子量 物質數量 Table 1-5, p. 19

  34. SI:the international system of units Table 1-6, p. 19

  35. 1-8 Units of Measurement Mass (質量):doesn’t vary as its position change Weight (重量): is a measure of the gravitational attraction of the earth for the body, and this varies with distance from the center of the earth Triple-beam balance 0.01g 三樑天平 Electronic top-load balance 0.001g 電子秤 Analytical balance 0.0001g 電子分析天平 Fig. 1-16a, p. 20

  36. Length Volume milliliter=1cm3= 1cc Liters=1000cm3 volumetric pipet 10ml 定量吸管 buret 25ml玻璃量管 centimeter inch volumetric flask 1000ml 定量瓶 Flask 錐形瓶 Beaker 150ml 燒杯 Graduated cylinder 100ml 量筒 Fig. 1-17 1-18, p. 21

  37. Appendix C Common Units, Equivalences, and Conversion Factors Page A-8 to A-10 in textbook Table 1-8, p. 21

  38. 1-9 Use of Numbers Scientific Notation 科學記數法 4,300,000=4.3x106 0.000348=3.48x10-4 Significant Figures 有效位數 are digits believed to be correct by the person who makes a measurement Numbers obtained by counting exact numbers Numbers obtained measurements are not exact  estimate numbers Fig. 1-19, p. 23

  39. Measurement of Volume Using a Buret • The volume is read at the bottom of the liquid curve (meniscus). • Meniscus of the liquid occurs at about 20.15 mL. • Certain digits: 20.15 • Uncertain digit: 20.15 • A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain. • A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty. • Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit (the estimated number).

  40. Significant Figures 有效位數 • Accuracy準確 • Agreement of a particular value with the true value. • Precision精確 • Degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity. Fig. 1-20, p. 24

  41. Precision and Accuracy Neither accurate nor precise Precise but not accurate Both precise and accurate

  42. Some simple rules govern the use of significant figures 1. Nonzero digits are always significant . 38.57 4 significant figure 288g 3 significant figure

  43. 2. Zeros are sometimes significant , and sometimes they are not • a. Zeroes at the beginning of a number are never significant • b. Zeroes between nonzero digits are always significant • c. Zeroes at the end of a number that contains a decimal point are always significant • d. Zeroes are at the end of a number that does not contain a decimal point may or may not be significant • 0.052 • 2 significant figure • 5.2x10-2 • 0.00364 • 3 significant figure • 3.64x10-3 • b. 2007 • 4 significant figure • 6.08 • 3 significant figure • c. 38.0 • 3 significant figure • 440.0 • 4 significant figure • d. 24,300km • 3,4,5 significant figure • 2.43x104 • 2.430x104 • 2.4300x104

  44. 3. Exact numbers can be considered as having an unlimited number of significant figures. This applies to defined quantities. • 1 yard = 3 feet • 1,3 are exact • Do no apply the rules of significant figures • 1 inch= 2.54cm

  45. Example Significant Figures Give the number of significant figures for each of the following results. a. A student’s extraction procedure on tea yields 0.0105 g of caffeine b. A chemist records a mass of 0.050080 g in an analysis c. In an experiment a span of time is determined to be 8.050x10-3 sec a. 0.0105g  1.05x10-2g 3 significant figures b. 0.050080g 5.0080x10-2 g  5 significant figures c. 8.050x10-3 sec  4 significant figures

  46. 4. In addition and subtraction, the last digit retained in the sum or difference is determined by the position of the first doubtful digit (a) Add 37.24ml and 10.3ml 37.24ml +10.3 ml 47.54 ml is reported as 47.5ml (b) Subtract 21.2342 from27.81 27.87 g - 21.2342g 6.6358 g is reported as 6.64g

  47. 5. In multiplication and division, an answer contains no more significant figures than the least number of significant figures used in the operation. 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.4  two significant figures What is the area of a rectangle 1.23 cm wide and 12.34cm long? A= l x w =(12.34cm) x (1.23cm) =15.2cm2 (calculator result =15.1782) Exercise 32

  48. Example: Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations Carry out the following mathematical operations, and give each result with the correct number of significant figures. a. 1.05x10-3 ÷ 6.135 b. 21-13.8 c. (2.560)x(8.8) ÷ 275.15 • a. 1.05x10-3 ÷ 6.135  1.71x10-4 • 3 significant figures • b. 21-13.8  7 •  The number with the least number decimal places (21) has none • c. (2.560)(8.8) ÷ 275.15  0.0835908 • The least precise measurement has 2 significant figures • 8.4x10-2

  49. 5280ft 12in. 1-10 The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis 因次分析) Factor-label Method Unit Factor: a factor in which the numerator and denominator are expressed in different units but represent the same or equivalent amounts. 1 ft = 12 in 1=12 in/ft 1=1 ft/12in The reciprocal of any unit factor is also a unit factor Example 1-5Unit Factor Express 1.47 mi. in inches. Miles  feet  inches 1 mile = 5,280 ft 1 ft = 12 inch ?in. =1.47 mi x x =9.31x104 in. mi ft (93139.2) Exercise 36 Unit Conversion Unit Conversion Mass Conversion Energy Conversion Volume Conversion Volume Calculation English-Metric Conversion

  50. Å m cm Å m nm 1cm 1x10-10m 1nm 1x10-10m Unit Conversion Example 1-6Unit Conversion The Ångestrom (Å) is a unit of length 1x10-10m, that provides a convenient scale on which to express the radii of atoms. Radii of atoms are often expressed in nanometers. The radius of a phosphorus atom is 1.10 (Å). what is the distance expressed in centimeters and nanometers? ? cm = 1.1 Å x x =1.10x10-8cm 1x10-2m 1 Å ? nm = 1.1 Å x x =1.10x10-1nm 1x10-9m 1 Å

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