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Twelfth Edition

Twelfth Edition. Adolescence . by John W. Santrock. University of Texas at Dallas. Power point slides prepared by Leonard R. Mendola, Ph.D. Touro College. The Brain and Cognitive Development Chapter 3 Outline. The Brain Neurons Brain Structure, Cognition, and Emotion

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Twelfth Edition

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  1. Twelfth Edition Adolescence by John W. Santrock University of Texas at Dallas Power point slides prepared by Leonard R. Mendola, Ph.D. Touro College

  2. The Brain andCognitive DevelopmentChapter 3 Outline • The Brain • Neurons • Brain Structure, Cognition, and Emotion • White Matter and Gray Matter • Experience and Plasticity • The Cognitive Developmental View • Piaget’s Theory • Vygotsky’s Theory • The Information-Processing View • Cognitive Resources • Mechanisms of Change • Attention and Memory • Executive Functioning

  3. The Brain andCognitive DevelopmentChapter 3 Outline (Continued from previous slide) • The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Intelligence Tests • Multiple Intelligences • Heredity and Environment • Social Cognition • Adolescent Egocentrism • Perspective Taking • Social Cognition in the Rest of the Text

  4. The Neuron • Scientists now know that the adolescent’s brain is different from the child’s brain, and that in adolescence the brain is still growing. (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006; Toga, Thompson, & Sowell, 2006). • Neurons, or nerve cells, are the nervous system’s basic units

  5. The Neuron A neuron has three basic parts: the cell body, dendrites, and axon Fig. 3.1

  6. The Neuron • The dendrite is the receiving part of the neuron, while the axon carries information away from the cell body to other cells • Myelin sheath increases the speed and efficiency of information processing in the nervous system • The dramatic increase in connections between neurons is a process called synaptogenesis (Stettler & others, 2006). • Synapses are gaps between neurons, where connections between the axon and dendrites take place • Neurotransmitters - chemicals that carry information across the synaptic gap between one neuron and the next - change

  7. The Neuron Myelination The axon portion of a neuron becomes covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells Fig. 3.2

  8. Brain Structure, Cognition, and Emotion • Neurons are connected in precise ways, they form various structures in the brain: • The Corpus Callosum • The Prefrontal Cortex • The Amygdala

  9. The Neuron Growth and pruning of synapses in the visual, auditory, and prefrontal cortex of the brain Fig. 3.3

  10. The Neuron The locations of the corpus callosum, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala. Fig. 3.4

  11. White Matter and Gray Matter • In neuroscience terminology, the increase in myelination during adolescence involves an increase in white matter. • The nerve cell body and its branching dendrites are called gray matter.

  12. Experience and Plasticity Can New Brain Cells Be Generated in Adolescence? • People can generate new brain cells throughout their lives. (Brinton & Wang, 2006; Briones, 2006; Gould & others, 1999). • Exercise and enriched experiences can produce new brain cells. (Kramer, Fabiani, & Colcombe, 2006).

  13. Experience and Plasticity Can the Adolescent’s Brain Recover from Injury? • The brain has a remarkable ability to repair itself (Martino, 2004; Sharp & others, 2006; Spessot, Plessen, & Peterson, 2004) • The earlier a brain injury occurs, the more likelihood of a successful recovery (Bhutta & Anand, 2002).

  14. Experience and Plasticity What Do We Know about Applying Information about Brain Development to Adolescents’ Education? • There is no neuroscientific evidence to support the belief that there is a critical or sensitive period — a biological window of opportunity — when learning is easy, effective, and easily retained. (Breur, 1999) • Although children’s brains acquire a great deal of information during the early years, most learning likely takes place after synaptic formation stabilizes, which is after the age of ten (Goldman-Rakic, 1996).

  15. The Cognitive Developmental View • Piaget's Theory • Cognitive Processes • Schema: • A concept or framework that exists in the individual’s mind to organize and interpret information • Assimilation: • The incorporation of new information into existing knowledge • Accommodation: • An adjustment to new information, causing the schema to change • Equilibration: • When adolescents experience cognitive conflict, they resolve conflict to reach a balance

  16. Cognitive Developmental View Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Fig. 3.5

  17. Cognitive Developmental View • At the same time adolescents think more abstractly and idealistically, they also think more logically. • Adolescents begin to reason more as a scientist does • Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: the ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about how to solve problems

  18. Cognitive Developmental View • Some developmentalists believe that formal operational thought consists of two subperiods (Broughton, 1983): • Early Formal Operational Thought. Adolescents’ newfound ability to think in hypothetical ways produces unconstrained thoughts with unlimited possibilities. • Late Formal Operational Thought. As adolescents test their reasoning against experience, intellectual balance is restored.

  19. Cognitive Developmental View • Evaluating Piaget’s Theory • A giant in the field of developmental psychology • A genius when it came to observing children • Viewed children as active, constructive thinkers (Vidal, 2000). • Emphasized how children act on and adapt to their world • Pointed out that children need to make their experiences fit their schemas, or cognitive frameworks, yet can simultaneously adapt their schemas to experience • A concept does not emerge all of a sudden, full blown, but develops instead through a series of partial accomplishments that lead to an increasingly comprehensive understanding(Haith & Benson, 1998).

  20. Cognitive Developmental View • Criticisms • Questions are raised about the timing and nature of his stage view of cognitive development • He failed to adequately study in detail key cognitive processes • His explanations of cognitive changes are too general • He failed to adequately study the effects of culture on cognitive development

  21. Cognitive Developmental View • Cognitive Changes in Adulthood • Realistic and Pragmatic Thinking • Reflective and Relativistic Thinking

  22. Cognitive Developmental View • Is There a Fifth, Postformal Stage? • Some theorists proposed that young adults move into a new qualitative stage of cognitive development • The following descriptions have been proposed: • Reflective, relativistic, and contextual • Provisional • Realistic • Open to emotions and subjective • Research has yet to document that postformal thought is a qualitatively more advanced stage than formal operational thought.

  23. Cognitive Developmental View • Vygotksy’s Theory • knowledge is distributed among people and their environments, which include objects, artifacts, tools, books, and the communities in which people live.

  24. Cognitive Developmental View Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Fig. 3.6

  25. Cognitive Developmental View • Vygotksy’s Theory • Social Constructivist Approach • Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction • Students need many opportunities to learn with the teacher and more-skilled peers (Daniels, 2007) • Teachers serve as facilitators and guides, rather than as directors and molders of learning.

  26. Cognitive Developmental View Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories compared Fig. 3.7

  27. The Information-Processing View • Some basic characteristics of the information-processing view: • Cognitive Resources • capacity and speed of processing (Frye, 2004) • Mechanisms of Change • encoding, automaticity, strategy construction, and generalization • Attention and Memory • attention is both selective and shifting • short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory • Executive Functioning • higher-order, complex cognitive processes • Decision Making

  28. The Information-Processing View • Some basic characteristics of the information-processing view: • Reasoning • Critical Thinking • Creative Thinking • Expertise • Metacognition and Self-Regulatory Learning

  29. The Information-Processing View • Reasoning • Reasoning is logical thinking that uses induction and deduction to reach a conclusion • Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from the specific to the general • Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general to the specific

  30. The Information-Processing View A visual representation of the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning. Fig. 3.11

  31. The Information-Processing View • Critical Thinking • Thinking reflexively and productively and evaluating the evidence • Creativity • The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems

  32. The Information-Processing View • Convergent Thinking • A pattern of thinking in which individuals produce one correct answer; characteristic of the items on conventional intelligence tests • Divergent Thinking • A pattern of thinking in which individuals produce many answers to the same question; more characteristic of creativity than convergent thinking

  33. Metacognition and Self-Regulatory Learning • Metacognition • Cognition about cognition, or “knowing about knowing” • Self-Regulatory Learning • Consists of self-generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to reach a goal

  34. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • This view emphasizes the importance of individual differences in intelligence. • Many advocates of this view favor the use of intelligence tests. • An increasing issue in the field of intelligence involves pinning down what the components of intelligence really are.

  35. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • A definition of intelligence • problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to life’s everyday experiences.

  36. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Intelligence tests • In 1904 the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method of identifying children who were unable to learn in school • 1905 Binet developed an intelligence test to meet this request • It consisted of 30 questions on topics ranging from the ability to touch one’s ear to the ability to draw designs from memory and define abstract concepts

  37. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Intelligence tests • Binet developed the concept of mental age (MA) • an individual’s level of mental development relative to others. • In 1912, William Stern created the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ) • a person’s mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. • IQ = MA/CA × 100

  38. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Intelligence tests • If mental age is the same as chronological age, then the person’s IQ is 100. If mental age is above chronological age, then IQ is more than 100. If mental age is below chronological age, then IQ is less than 100. • The Binet test has been revised many times • These revisions are called the Stanford-Binet tests (Stanford University is where the revisions have been done)

  39. The Psychometric/Intelligence View The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores Fig. 3.14

  40. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Intelligence tests • The Wechsler Scales • developed by David Wechsler • Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence–III (WPPSI-III) to test children 4 to 61/2 years of age • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—IV Integrated (WISC-IV Integrated) for children and adolescents 6 to 16 years of age • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III).

  41. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Using Intelligence Tests • Psychological tests are tools • their effectiveness depends on the knowledge, skill, and integrity of the user. • some cautions about IQ • Avoid stereotyping and expectations • Know that IQ is not a sole indicator of competence

  42. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Multiple Intelligences • Robert J. Sternberg (1986, 2003, 2006) developed the triarchic theory of intelligence • Analytical intelligence • ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast • Creative intelligence • ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine • Practical intelligence • ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice

  43. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind • Howard Gardner (1983, 1993, 2002, 2006) suggests there are eight types of intelligence, or "frames of mind." VerbalMusical MathematicalInterpersonal SpatialIntrapersonal Bodily-KinestheticNaturalist

  44. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Emotional Intelligence • Daniel Goleman (1995) emphasized interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects of intelligence • Initially developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990) • defined it as the ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively (such as taking the perspective of others), to understand emotion and emotional knowledge (such as understanding the roles that emotions play in friendship and marriage), to use feelings to facilitate thought (such as being in a positive mood, which is linked to creative thinking), and to manage emotions in oneself and others (such as being able to control one’s anger).

  45. The Psychometric/Intelligence View A comparison of Sternberg’s, Gardner’s, and Mayer/Salovey/Goleman’s views Fig. 3.16

  46. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Controversies in Intelligence • An ongoing issue involving intelligence is the extent to which it is due to heredity or to environment. • Heredity • How strong is the effect of heredity on intelligence? • Environment • Are there ethnic variations in intelligence?

  47. The Psychometric/Intelligence View • Heredity and Environment Interaction • Most researchers agree that genetics and environment interact to influence intelligence (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter, 2006; Ramey, Ramey, & Lanzi, 2006; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2004).

  48. Social Cognition • Refers to the way individuals conceptualize and reason about their social worlds—the people they watch and interact with, their relationships with those people, the groups they participate in, and the way they reason about themselves and others.

  49. Social Cognition • Adolescent Egocentrism • The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they are themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability. • Perspective Taking • The ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings.

  50. RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS • Children’s Thinking (2005, 4th ed.) by Robert Siegler and Martha Alibali Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. In-depth coverage of information processing by leading experts. • The Second Decade: What Develops? (2006) By Deanna Kuhn and Sam Franklin. In W. Damon & R. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology (6th Ed.). New York: Wiley. An up-to-date, in-depth examination of the important changes in executive functioning and other cognitive changes in adolescence. • Teaching and Learning Through Multiple Intelligences (2004, 3rd ed.) by Linda Campbell, Bruce Campbell, and Dee Dickinson. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Provides applications of Gardner’s eight intelligences to classrooms.

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