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Twelfth Edition

Twelfth Edition. Adolescence. by John W. Santrock. University of Texas at Dallas. Power point slides prepared by Leonard R. Mendola, Ph.D. Touro College. Peers Chapter 9 Outline. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS Peer Relations Friendship Loneliness ADOLESCENT GROUPS

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Twelfth Edition

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  1. Twelfth Edition Adolescence by John W. Santrock University of Texas at Dallas Power point slides prepared by Leonard R. Mendola, Ph.D. Touro College

  2. PeersChapter 9 Outline • EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS • Peer Relations • Friendship • Loneliness • ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Group Function and Formation • Groups in Childhood and Adolescence • Cliques and Crowds • Youth Organizations

  3. PeersChapter 9 Outline • GENDER AND CULTURE • Sibling Roles • Birth Order • DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Functions of Dating • Types of Dating and Developmental • Changes • Emotion, Adjustment and Romantic • Relationships • Romantic Love and Its Construction • Gender and Culture

  4. PeersChapter 9 Outline • EMERGING ADULT LIFESTYLES • Single Adults • Cohabiting Adults • Married Adults • Divorced Adults • Gay Male and Lesbian Adults

  5. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Peer Relations • Peers are individuals who are about the same age or maturity level. • Peers and friends play powerful roles in the lives of adolescents. • Peer Group Functions • Provides a source of information about the world outside the family. • Adolescents receive feedback about their abilities. • Adolescents learn whether what they do is better than, as good as, or worse than what other adolescents do.

  6. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Developmental Changes in Peer Time • Boys and girls spend an increasing amount of time in peer interaction during middle and late childhood and adolescence. • By adolescence, peer relations occupy large chunks of an individual’s life. • Most peer interactions occur outside the home (although close to home), occur more often in private than public places, and occur more between children of the same sex than of the opposite sex.

  7. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Positive and Negative Peer Relations • Through peer interaction children and adolescents learn the symmetrical reciprocity mode of relationships. • Adolescents explore the principles of fairness and justice by working through disagreements with peers. • They also learn to be keen observers of peers’ interests and perspectives in order to smoothly integrate themselves into ongoing peer activities. • Adolescents learn to be skilled and sensitive partners in intimate relationships.

  8. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Positive and Negative Peer Relations • Being rejected or overlooked by peers leads some adolescents to feel lonely or hostile. • Rejection and neglect by peers are related to an individual’s subsequent mental health and criminal problems (Bukowski,Brendgen, & Vitaro, 2007). • Time spent hanging out with antisocial peers in adolescence was a stronger predictor of substance abuse than time spent with parents (Nation & Heflinger, 2006). • Deviant peer affiliation was related to adolescents’ depressive symptoms (Connell & Dishion, 2006).

  9. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Family-Peer Linkages • Parents have little authority over adolescents’ choices in some areas but more authority of choices in other areas. • Adolescents do show a strong motivation to be with their peers and become independent. • Adolescents live in a connected world with parents and peers, not a disconnected one (Dodge & others, 2006; Tilton-Weaver & Leighter, 2002).

  10. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Family-Peer Linkages • What are some of the ways the worlds of parents and peers are connected? • Parents’ choices of neighborhoods, churches, schools, and their own friends influence the pool from which their adolescents select possible friends (Cooper & Ayers-Lopez, 1985). • Parents can model or coach their adolescents in ways of relating to peers. • Secure attachment to parents is related to the adolescent’s positive peer relations (Allen & others, 2003; Collins & van Dulmen, 2006).

  11. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Peer Conformity • Conformity comes in many forms and affects many aspects of adolescents’ lives. • Conformity occurs when individuals adopt the attitudes or behavior of others because of real or imagined pressure from them. • Conformity to peer pressure in adolescence can be positive or negative. • Peer pressure is a pervasive theme of adolescents’ lives. • The developmental changes of adolescence often bring forth a sense of insecurity.

  12. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP Developmental Changes in Conformity to Peer Standards Fig. 9.1

  13. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP

  14. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Social Cognition and Emotion • Social cognitive skills and social knowledge of adolescents are important aspects of successful peer relations. So is the ability to manage and regulate one’s emotions.

  15. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Social Cognition • A distinction can be made between knowledge and process in cognition. • As children move into adolescence, they acquire more social knowledge. • There is considerable individual variation in how much one adolescent knows about what it takes to make friends. • From a social cognitive perspective, children and adolescents may have difficulty in peer relations because they lack appropriate social cognitive skills (Dodge, Coie, & Lynam, 2006).

  16. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Emotion • Not only does cognition play an important role in peer relations, so does emotion. • Moody and emotionally negative individuals experience greater rejection by peers. • Emotionally positive individuals are more popular (Saarni & others, 2006).

  17. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Strategies for Improving Social Skills • Conglomerate strategies (coaching) • A combination of techniques, rather than a single approach, to improve adolescents’ social skills. • Modeling of appropriate social skills • Discussion • Reasoning • Reinforcement

  18. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Friendship • Friends are a subset of peers who engage in mutual companionship, support, and intimacy. • Relationships with friends are much closer and more involved than is the case with the peer group. • Some adolescents have several close friends, others one, and yet others none.

  19. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP Functions that adolescents’ friendships serve Companionship Stimulation Physical support Ego support Social Comparison Intimacy/affection Fig. 9.3

  20. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Sullivan’s Ideas on Changes in Friendship in Early Adolescence • Argued that there is a dramatic increase in the psychological importance and intimacy of close friends during early adolescence. • Friends also play important roles in shaping children’s and adolescents’ well - being and development. • If adolescents failed to forge such close friendships, they would experience painful feelings of loneliness coupled with a reduced sense of self-worth.

  21. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Friendship in Emerging Adulthood • Many aspects of friendship are the same in adolescence as in emerging adulthood. • Close relationships - between friends, family members, and romantic partners - were more integrated and similar than in adolescence. • The number of friendships declined from the end of adolescence through emerging adulthood.

  22. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Intimacy • Defined narrowly as self-disclosure or sharing of private thoughts. • Similarity • Friends are generally similar. • Friends often have similar attitudes toward school, similar educational aspirations, and closely aligned achievement orientations. • Friends enjoy the same music, wear the same style of clothes, and prefer the same leisure activities (Berndt, 1982).

  23. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Mixed-Age Friendships • Some adolescents become best friends with younger or older individuals. • A common fear, especially among parents, is that adolescents who have older friends will be encouraged to engage in delinquent behavior or early sexual behavior.

  24. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Loneliness • For some individuals loneliness is a chronic condition. • Chronic loneliness is linked with impaired physical and mental health (Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2003). • It is important to distinguish loneliness from the desire for solitude. • The first year of college may create loneliness especially if students leave the familiar world of their hometown and family to enter college.

  25. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP • Strategies for Reducing Loneliness • Participate in activities that you can do with others. • Engage in positive behaviors when you meet new people. • See a counselor or read a book on loneliness.

  26. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Group Function and Formation • Groups satisfy adolescents’ • Personal needs • Rewards them • Provides information • Raises their self-esteem • Gives them an identity • Satisfy their need for affiliation and companionship.

  27. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Group Function and Formation • Any group to which adolescents belong has two things in common with all other groups: • Norms and Roles. • Norms are rules that apply to all members of a group. • Roles are certain positions in a group that are governed by rules and expectations.

  28. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Groups in Childhood and Adolescence • Childhood groups differ from adolescent groups • Childhood groups often are friends or neighborhood acquaintances. • The groups usually are not as formalized as many adolescent groups. • Adolescent groups • Tend to include a broader array of members; in other words, adolescents other than friends or neighborhood acquaintances often are members of adolescent groups.

  29. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Cliques and Crowds • Cliques are small groups that range from two to about twelve individuals and average about five to six individuals. • Members are usually of the same sex and are similar in age. • Adolescents engage in similar activities • Being in a club together or on a sports team. • Crowds are a larger group structure than cliques. • Crowds are less personal than cliques. • Defined by the activities adolescents engage in.

  30. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Youth Organizations • Can have an important influence on the adolescent’s development (Brown, 2004) • More than 400 national youth organizations currently operate in the United States (Erickson, 1996). • The organizations include • Career groups, such as Junior Achievement • Building character groups, such as Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts • Political groups, such as Young Republicans and Young Democrats • Ethnic groups, such as Indian Youth of America

  31. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Youth Organizations • Serve approximately 30 million young people each year. • The largest youth organization is 4-H, with nearly 5 million participants. • The smallest organizations are ASPIRA, a Latino youth organization that provides intensive educational enrichment programs for about 13,000 adolescents each year. • WAVE, a dropout-prevention program that serves about 8,000 adolescents each year.

  32. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Youth Organizations • Adolescents who join such groups are more likely to participate in community activities in adulthood. • Have higher self-esteem • Are better educated • Come from families with higher incomes than their counterparts who do not participate in youth groups (Erickson, 1982). • Participation in youth groups can help adolescents practice the interpersonal and organizational skills that are important for success in adult roles.

  33. ADOLESCENT GROUPS • Youth Organizations • Some of the reasons given by middle school adolescents for not participating in youth programs: • Lack of interest in available activities • Lack of transportation • Lack of awareness about what is available • Parents see similar barriers, especially transportation and costs.

  34. GENDER AND CULTURE • Gender • Gender plays an important role in the peer group and friendships (Leman, Ahmad, & Ozarow, 2005). • Group size • Boys are more likely than girls to associate in larger clusters. • Boys are more likely to participate in organized games and sports than girls are.

  35. GENDER AND CULTURE • Gender • Interaction in same-sex groups • Boys are more often likely than girls to engage in competition, conflict, ego displays, and risk taking and to seek dominance. • Girls are more likely to engage in “collaborative discourse,” in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner.

  36. GENDER AND CULTURE • Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity • Peer groups are strongly segregated according to socioeconomic status and ethnicity. • Middle-SES students often assume the leadership roles in formal organizations. • Athletic teams are one type of adolescent group in which African American adolescents and adolescents from low-income families have been able to gain parity or even surpass adolescents from middle- and upper-SES families in achieving status. • Peer groups may form to oppose those of the majority group.

  37. GENDER AND CULTURE • Culture • In some countries, adults restrict adolescents’ access to peers. • interaction with the other sex or opportunities for romantic relationships are restricted (Booth, 2002). • Japanese adolescents seek autonomy from their parents later and have less conflict with them. • The peer group was more important to U.S. adolescents than to Japanese adolescents (Rothbaum & others, 2000).

  38. GENDER AND CULTURE • Culture • In Southeast Asia and some Arab regions, adolescents are starting to rely more on peers for advice and share interests with them (Booth, 2002; Santa Maria, 2002). • In many countries and regions, peers play more prominent roles in adolescents’ lives (Brown & Larson, 2002). • Similar results have been observed throughout Europe and North America (Arnett, 2002).

  39. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Functions of Dating • Dating is a relatively recent phenomenon. • In the 1920s it became a reality. • Primary role was to select and win a mate. • Dating has evolved into something more than just courtship for marriage.

  40. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Dating today can serve at least eight functions (Paul & White, 1990): • Recreation • Source of status and achievement • Part of the socialization process • Involves learning about intimacy • Context for sexual experimentation and exploration • Provide companionship • Identity formation and development • A means of mate sorting and selection

  41. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Types of Dating and Developmental Changes • Heterosexual Romantic Relationships • Individuals spent more time thinking about the opposite sex than they actually spent with them • By eleventh and twelfth grade, this had shifted to more time spent in their actual presence than thinking about them.

  42. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Types of Dating and Developmental Changes • Romantic Relationships in Sexual Minority Youth • Most research has focused on heterosexual relationships. • Recently, researchers have begun to study romantic relationships in gay male, lesbian, and bisexual youth (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2003).

  43. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Emotion, Adjustment, and Romantic Relationships • Emotions are positive, in others negative. • A concern is that in some cases the negative emotions are too intense and prolonged, and can lead to adjustment problems. • Dating and Adjustment • Linked with various measures of how well adjusted adolescents are (Barber, 2006; Fisher, 2006). • Dissolution of a Romantic Relationship

  44. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Dissolution of a Romantic Relationship • Being in love when love is not returned can lead to: • Depression • Obsessive thoughts • Sexual dysfunction • Inability to work effectively • Difficulty in making new friends • Self-condemnation. • Thinking clearly in such relationships is often difficult, because the person is so colored by arousing emotions.

  45. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Dissolution of a Romantic Relationship • Studies of romantic breakups have mainly focused on their negative aspects (Frazier & Cooke, 1993; Kato, 2005; Kurdek, 1997). • Few studies have examined the possibility that a romantic breakup might lead to positive changes (Sbarra & Ferrer, 2006).

  46. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Romantic Love and Its Construction • Romantic love is also called passionate love or eros • Has strong sexual and infatuation components • Often predominates in the early part of a love relationship • Extremely important among college students. • Affectionate love • Also called companionate love • More characteristic of adult love than adolescent love

  47. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Gender and Culture • Dating and romantic relationships may vary. • Gender • Do male and female adolescents bring different motivations to the dating experience? • Candice Feiring (1996) found that they did. • Girls were more likely to describe romance in terms of interpersonal qualities • Boys in terms of physical attraction. • Dating scripts • Are the cognitive models that adolescents and adults use to guide and evaluate dating interactions.

  48. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Ethnicity and Culture • The sociocultural context exerts a powerful influence on adolescent dating patterns and on mate selection (Booth, 2002; Stevenson & Zusho, 2002).

  49. EMERGING ADULT LIFESTYLES • Single Adults • There has been a dramatic rise in the percentage of single adults • They often are stereotyped (DePaulo & Morris, 2005). • “Swinging single” • “Desperately lonely” • “Suicidal”

  50. EMERGING ADULT LIFESTYLES • Single Adults • Advantages of being single include: • Having time to make decisions about one’s life course • Time to develop personal resources to meet goals, • Freedom to make autonomous decisions • Pursue one’s own schedule and interests • Opportunities to explore new places • Try out new things • Privacy

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