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THE SUBJECT MATTER

THE SUBJECT MATTER. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? A Comparative Analysis of Eastern and Western Views. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?. The Question How should the question – “What is philosophy?” – be answered in a scholarly manner? The Answer A methodological question

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THE SUBJECT MATTER

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  1. THE SUBJECT MATTER WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? A Comparative Analysis of Eastern and Western Views

  2. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? • The Question • How should the question – “What is philosophy?” – be answered in a scholarly manner? • The Answer • A methodological question • To answer this MQ in a scholarly manner, we can (1) classify all past attempts into the Western and Eastern perspectives, (2) Western perspectives into the definitional and functional approaches, (3) explain them, and (4) respond to them. • Western Perspectives • Definitional Approach • Functional Approach • Eastern Eastern Perspectives • East Asian Perspectives • South Asian Perspectives

  3. What is philosophy? • The Western Perspectives • Definitional Approach • Greek Definition • American Definitions • Comparisons • Similarities • Rational thinking • Ultimate questions • Differences • An attempt vs. an activity • Good and rational justifications to support one’s particular position (insisted by McInerny but not Miller). • Wisdom is not viewed as the ultimate end of philosophy by McInerny and Miller as ancient Greek thinkers did.

  4. What is philosophy? • A Scholarly Answer • Functional Approach • Fields of Western Philosophy • Axiology • Cosmology • Ethics • Metaphysics • Ontology • Political Philosophy • Functions of Philosophy Fields

  5. What is philosophy? • Fields and Methods of Philosophical Thinking • Axiology • To think philosophically is to think axiologically. • Cosmology • To think philosophically is to think cosmologically. • Ethics/Moral Philosophy • To think philosophically is to think ethically. • Functions of Philosophy Fields

  6. What is philosophy? • Fields and Methods of Philosophical Thinking • Metaphysics • To think philosophically is to think metaphysically. • Ontology • To think philosophically is to think ontologically. • Political Philosophy • To think philosophically is to think in harmony with the principles of political philosophy. • Functions of Philosophy Fields

  7. What are the 4 primary fields of WP to be mastered for doing EP? • 4 Primary Fields of Western Philosophy to Master • Cosmology • What does cosmology do? • How to think cosmologically (> cosmological thinking)? • Ethics/Moral Philosophy • What does ethics do? • How to think ethically (> ethical thinking)? • Metaphysics • What does metaphysics do? • How to think metaphysically (> metaphysical thinking)? • Ontology • What does ontology do? • How to think ontologically (> ontological thinking)? • Functions of Philosophy Fields

  8. What is philosophy? • A Scholarly Answer • Critical Responses • Evaluation • DA is methodologically reasonable. • FA is methodologically more attractive. • Critique • DA boxes philosophy in definitional boxes. • Resolution • A “middle way” suggestion.

  9. CHOICES OF WORDS • ANCIENT GREEK WORD (sixth century BCE) • PHILOSOPHIA > PHILOSOPHY • Pythagoras (b. 570 BCE) • ANCIENT EAST ASIAN WORD (sixth century BCE) • TAO (Wade-Giles Romanization) • DAO (Pinyin Romanization) • Confucius (551-479 BCE) • Laozi/Lao Zi/Lao Tzu (older contemporary of Kong Zi) • ANCIENT SOUTH ASIAN WORDS • Dhamma(Pali) • Dharma (Sanskrit) • Siddhatta Gotama (b. 563-483 BCE) • Siddhartha Gautama (Sanskrit) • POST-BUDDHA HINDU WORD • Darshana or Darshan (Sanskrit)/Dassana (Pali)

  10. CHOICES OF WORDS • MODERN CHINESE WORD (20th century CE) • 哲學 • Zhe Xue • MODERN ViệTNAMESE WORD (20th century CE) • Triết Học • Triết Lý • Triết

  11. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • The Question • What does the Greek word “philosophia” mean? • The Answer • “love of wisdom” (Miller 1993: 3) • Philosopher is “the lover of wisdom.” • Pythagoras (b. 570 BCE) is credited to have called himself “A philosopher” (Miller 1993: 3-4) • “…. when Leon the tyrant of Philius asked him who he was, he said, ‘A philosopher,’ and that he compared life to the Great Games, where some went to compete for the prize and others went with wares to sell, but the best as spectators; for similarly, in life, some grow up with servile natures, greedy for fame and gain, but the philosopher seeks for truth.” (Laertius 1925), cited in Miller (1993: 4). • Miller’s Remark: • “To be sure, something of the spirit and character of philosophy is suggested in this way by the very meaning of the word -- but not much.” (Ibid)

  12. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • The Question • What term did Confucius, Laozi, and other thinkers of ancient East Asia call their thoughts/teachings? • The Answer 道 • DAO (pinyin Romanization) or • TAO (Wade-Giles Romanization) • DO (Japanese as in Aikido) • Đạo (Việtnamese as in Việt Võ Đạo)

  13. Meaning of the Term “Tao” • The Question • What does the character “dao” signify literally? • The Answer by Joseph Needham • “Etymologically speaking, the term “tao” is composed of two elements (radicals): head and to run, giving the picture of a movement heading in a certain direction” [Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, II (1956:222), note 70]. • Dr. Needham: British biochemist, embryologist, and historian of science

  14. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • The Question • How had the term “tao” (dao) been used in ancient times? • The Answer • “The word tao, one of the most important terms in Chinese philosophy, has a primary meaning of ‘road’ or ‘way.’ Beginning with this primary meaning, it assumed already in ancient times a metaphorical significance, as the “Way of man,’ that is, human morality, conduct or truth. During this time, its meaning was always restricted to human affairs, whereas when we come to the Lao Tzu, we find the word tao being given a metaphysical meaning. That is to say, the assumption is made that for the universe to have come into being, there must exist an all-embracing first principle, which is called Tao.” [Fung Yu-Lan, History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. I (Princeton 1952), p. 177].

  15. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • The Question • What does the character “dao” (way) signify literally? • The Answer 道 • The left element means run • The right element means head • The character “way” can be interpreted to have been composed to symbolize the movement of mind-guided way and its way-making.

  16. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • What is the modern term used by modern Chinese and Việtnamese scholars to mean philosophy? 哲學 ZHE XUE Triết Học

  17. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • What does the word “哲學” mean? 學: xue/học: learning, study 哲: zhe/triết: philosophy, philosophical 哲學: philosophical study study of philosophy

  18. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • Meaning of the Word 哲學 zhe xue (Mandarin/Han Ru) triết học (Việt Nho) triết lý (Việt Nho) triết (Việt Nho)

  19. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • Meanings of the metaphors 哲 ARM+AXE+MOUTH Thủ + Cân + Khẩu How should these three metaphors be interpreted? Physical metaphors? Philosophical metaphors?

  20. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • Meaning of the Word 哲 ARM+AXE+MOUTH Thủ + Cân + Khẩu The character “ZHE” (Triết) can be interpreted to have been composed to indicate a discourse (mouth) based on a careful examination of things (arm+axe). Note: Powerful metaphors!

  21. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • The Question • What is the meaning of the term “Dhamma used by the Buddha? • The Answer • DHAMMA (Pali) • The teaching of the Buddha, who recognized and formulated the “law” (dhamma), thus the teaching that expresses the universal truth (The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion 1994: 87).

  22. EXPOSITION OF THE WORD • The Question • What does the Hindu term “darshana” or “darshan” mean? • The Answer • “view, sight” (thus vision) • “system” or “doctrine” (referring to the six systems of orthodox Hindu philosophy). • “All six doctrines have the same goal: to liberate the soul from the round of births and deaths and to bring about union with God or the Absolute.” (Ibid: 84) • Darshana is the term used for the six schools of the orthodox Hindu intellectual tradition: 1_ Nyaya 2_ Vaisheshika 3_ Sankhya 4_ Yoga 5_ Mimamsa 6_ Vedanta

  23. DIFFERENT CHOICES OF THE WORD • The Question • What is the first difference between the ancient Greek and ancient (and modern) Eastern philosophical traditions? • The Answer • They had chosen different words with different meanings to represent their thought systems. • Their choices of different words also represent their different views of the end and the means of philosophy/dao/dhamma/darshana. • Dao > Way • Dhamma > Law • Darshana > Vision • Zhe xue > Discourse • Triết học > Discourse • Philosophia > Love of Wisdom

  24. The First Difference: Choices of Words • Eastern Words • Dao > Way • Dhamma > Law • Darshana > Vision • Zhe xue > Discourse • Triết học > Discourse • Greek Word • Philosophia • Western Word • Philosophy

  25. THE ULTIMATE END OF PHILOSOPHY • The Question • What should be the ultimate end of philosophy? • The Ancient Greek View • “Sophia” (Wisdom) • Confucius/Kongzi/Kong Zi • Governing the state • Laozi/Lao Zi/Lao Tzu • Self-Enlightement (Ming)

  26. THE ULTIMATE END OF PHILOSOPHY • The Question • What should be the ultimate end of philosophy? • Upanishadic Seers (Rishis) • To be one with Atman/Brahman • The Buddha • Dukkha > Nibbana (Pali) > Nirvana (Sanskrit) • Mahayana Buddhism • Shunyata • Hindu Darshana • Moksha • Religious Moksha • Philosophical Moksha

  27. THE ULTIMATE END OF PHILOSOPHY • The Question • What is the second difference between the ancient Greek and ancient Eastern views concerning the ultimate end of philosophy? • The Answer • All Eastern traditions • “Wisdom” as means but not end. • Buddhism • Freedom from dukkha • Shunyata (Emptiness) • Hindu Darshana • To become one with Atman/Brahman. • Confucianism • The unity of inner sagehood and outer kingship. • Laoism • Self-Enlightenment (Ming)

  28. THE ULTIMATE END OF PHILOSOPHY • The Question • What is the second difference between the ancient Greek and ancient Eastern views concerning the ultimate end of philosophy? • The Answer • They had chosen different ends of philosophy. • All Eastern traditions have viewed “wisdom” as one of the means to achieve their respective ends but not “the ultimate end” of their respective teachings. • For Buddhism, the ultimate end is to self-realize nirvana by completely annihilating the reality of universal dukkha. • For Hindu darshana, the ultimate end is to become one with Atman/Brahman. • For Confucianism, the ultimate end is to realize the unity of inner sagehood and outer kingship. • For Laoism, the ultimate end is to understand Nature and to live in harmony with Nature (a truly natural being again).

  29. THE “MEANS” OF PHILOSOPHY • The Question • What should be the “means” to realize the ultimate end of philosophy? • The Answer • Ancient Greek philosophers had charted a path that has remained completely different with all Eastern paths and have laid the rational foundation for the subsequent developments of Western philosophies and sciences, thus, the transformations of Western civilizations and world history.

  30. EXPOSTITION OF THE “MEANS” OF PHILOSOPHY • The Question • What should be the “means” to realize the ultimate end of philosophy? • Philosophy is “the love of wisdom.” • The Problem of Interpretation • What could this Greek view had been intended to mean?

  31. EXPOSITION OF THE “END” OF PHILOSOPHY • The Ancient Greek View • Philosophy is “the love of wisdom.” • A Proposed Analysis • Concept Identification (Step 1) • First concept “love” • Second concept “wisdom” (sophia) • Interpretation (Step 2) • “Love” suggests one of the strongest human motivations that one should have for the pursuit of “wisdom.” • “Wisdom” suggests “the end” of philosophy.

  32. EXPOSITION OF THE END OF PHILOSOPHY • The Ancient Greek View • Philosophy is “the love of wisdom.” • A Proposed Analysis (continued) • PHILOSOPHY can be interpreted to have meant: • “WIDSOM” AS THE END OF PHILOSOPHY • “LOVE” AS THE STRONGEST MOTIVATION FOR THE PURSUIT OF PHILOSOPHY (SOPHIA)

  33. EXPOSITION OF THE “MEANS” OF PHILOSOPHY • A Proposed Analysis (continued) • The Question • What else is needed for the realization of “wisdom” as the ultimate end of philosophy? • The Answer • The philosophical means • The Motivation The Means The End “LOVE” ? “WISDOM”

  34. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? • What should be the “means” to be developed for the pursuit of “wisdom” as the ultimate end of philosophy? • SCIENCES AS THE MEANS OF PHILOSOPHY • PHYSICS: The Science of Nature • LOGIC: The Science of Mind • ETHICS: The Science of Morality • Philosophy was thus known as “the science of all sciences.” • FIELDS OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY • More Greek “sciences” developed by Plato and Aristotle. • Greek “sciences” came to be called “fields of Western philosophy” (“the tree of knowledge with many branches”).

  35. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? • SIMILARITIES • In what way is the Greek view of philosophy similar to the Buddhist, Confucianist, Daoist, and Hindu views of Dhamma, Dao, and Darshana? • PURSUIT OF “WISDOM” • Hindu/Buddhist PRAJNA • Mahayana PRAJNAPARAMITA • Confucianist/Daoist ZHI (v. Trí) • DIFFERENCES • No fields of knowledge in Eastern traditions • Holistic thinking, opposing fragmentation of knowledge • Ultimate end for Laoism/Daoism is MING • Ultimate end for Hindu Darshana is MOKSHA • Ultimate end for Buddhist Dhamma is NIRVANA

  36. AN INTRODUCTION TO “EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES” • THE TERM USED IN HINDU TRADITION • DARSHANA • Carrying, holding (lit.) • VISION • SYSTEM • WORLDVIEW • HINDU DARSHANA • NOT “HINDU PHILOSOPHY”

  37. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • NON-EXISTENCE OF THE TERM “PHILOSOPHY” IN THE PRE-MODERN EAST (551 BCE-1911 CE) • The term “philosophy” did not exist in the pre-modern East Asian mainland (now China) or the pre-modern South Asian subcontinent (now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). • 551 BCE is chosen as the starting point here because it was supposedly Confucius birthday (551-479 BCE). • 1911 CE is chosen as the end point here because marks the modern Chinese Revolution (10/10/1911).

  38. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • WESTERNIZATION OF EAST ASIAN TERMS BY ADOPTING THE WESTERN TERM “PHILOSOPHY” (PHILOSOPHIA) • Chinese scholars and Western sinologists have adopted the Western term “philosophy” to designate what they have called the “Chinese Philosophy.” • Examples: • Fung Yu-lan. 1952. A History of Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Originally published in 1931 in Shanghai in Zhongwen. • Graham, A.C. 1990. Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature. Albany: State University of New York Press.

  39. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • WESTERNIZATION OF SOUTH ASIAN TERMS BY ADOPTING THE WESTERN TERM “PHILOSOPHY” (PHILOSOPHIA) • Indian scholars and Western indianists have also adopted the Western term “philosophy” to designate what they have called the “Indian Philosophy.” • Examples: • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli. Indian Philosophy. • Radhakrishan, Sarvepalli and Charles Moore, eds. 1973. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. • Hamilton, Sue. 2004. Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  40. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • ADOPTION OF THE WESTERN TERM “PHILOSOPHY” (PHILOSOPHIA) • Western and Asian scholars have adopted the Western term “philosophy” to designate what they have called “Asian Philosophy.” • Examples: • John Koller. 2000. Asian Philosophies. • “Asian Philosophy” (title of the course Phil 104). • Nguyễn Đăng Thục. Lịch-Sử Triết-Học Đông-Phương (A History of Eastern Philosophies). Sài-Gòn: Linh-Sơn, 1956.

  41. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • The Question • What term did the Buddha use to call his thoughts? • The Answer • DHAMMA (Pali) • DHARMA (Sanskrit) • FA (Chinese) or DAO FA • DATSUMA (Japanese) • Pháp or Đạo Pháp (Việtnamese)

  42. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • THE TERM SHOULD BE USED FOR MODERN CHINESE, JAPANESE, AND VIETNAMESE “PHILOSOPHIES” • Chinese Dao • (not “Chinese Philosophy”) • Japanese DO • (not “Japanese Philosophy”) • ViệtnameseĐạo (ViệtĐạo) • (not “Việtnamese Philosophy”)

  43. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • THE TERM SHOULD BE USED FOR CONFUCIANIST, DAOIST, AND OTHER ANCIENT EAST ASIAN DAOS • Confucian Dao (Dao of Confucius) • Confucianist Dao (Dao of other Confucianist thinkers) • Not “Confucian Philosophy” • Laoian Dao • Not “Laoian Philosophy”

  44. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • THE METHODOLOGICAL QUESTIONS • Is there the so-called “CHINESE PHILOSOPHY”? • Is there the so-called “INDIAN PHILOSOPHY”? • Are BUDDHISM, CONFUCIANISM, DAOISM, and HINDUISM “PHILOSOPHIES” OR “THOUGHTS”? • One of these methodological questions can be used as a topic for your philosophy paper.

  45. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • APPROACHES AND METHODS • How should we go about resolving these methodological questions? • Is there the so-called “CHINESE PHILOSOPHY”? • Is there the so-called “INDIAN PHILOSOPHY”? • Are BUDDHISM, CONFUCIANISM, DAOISM, and HINDUISM “PHILOSOPHIES” OR “THOUGHTS”?

  46. EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY” • APPROACHES AND METHODS • The Two Orientations • Adopting the Western term “philosophy” • Examples already listed • Adopting the Western term “thought” • Schwartz, Benjamin. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985.

  47. THE QUESTION OF APPROACHES • APPROACHES AND METHODS • Objections • No scholarly criteria used to justify either practice • Approaches • Should we use Greek philosophy to determine the “philosophy status” of “Eastern philosophies”? • Should we use Western philosophy to determine the “philosophy status” of “Eastern philosophies”? • If the Western concept of “philosophy” is used, then, Western philosophy must be used to provide the criteria. • But is it fair to do so? This is the question of fairness. • But is there a problem of intellectual imperialism for this approach? • Problem of intellectual imperialism

  48. AN INTRODUCTION TO “EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES” • APPROACHES AND METHODS (continued) • Approaches • Honoring East Asian and Zhongguo Traditions on their own grounds • Honoring South Asian and Hindu Traditions on their own grounds • Comparison can be made for determining (1) similarities and differences between Eastern and Western intellectual traditions, (2) the uniqueness of each tradition, and (3) what had been responsible for the former.

  49. AN INTRODUCTION TO “EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES” • APPROACHES AND METHODS (continued) • The Type of Question Asked • What is the dao? • What is the darshana? • What is the dhamma? • What is the dharma? • What is philosophy?

  50. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

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