Ch0 Ethical Foundations

Ch0 Ethical Foundations COMPUTER ISSUES FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT Miller CSS309

THIS COURSE "is not intended to change peoples basic set of ethical values, but rather to assist users of computers and data communications in clarifying and applying their ethical values as they encounter new, complex situations where it may not be obvious how ethical values may apply or where the appropriate application of one of these values may conflict with other ethical values." Parker, Donn, Susan Swope, and Bruce Baker. Ethical Conflicts in information and Computer Science, Technology, and Business. QED Information Sciences, Inc. Wellesley, Massachusetts, 1990, p1. Miller CSS309

Ethics Ethics is the study of what it means to "do the right thing." It is the study of ways to distinguish right from wrong. Ethical theory is based on the assumption that people are rational and make free choices. If ethical rules are followed and they are good ones then they tend to make our lives better. Miller CSS309

Ethics There are often very practical reasons for behaving ethically. Ethics has to do with making a principle-based choice between competing alternatives. In the simplest ethical dilemmas, this choice is between right and wrong. Choosing right from wrong usually is not very difficult, but right from right is an entirely different matter. Miller CSS309

Ethics Ethical principles are basically ideas of behavior that are commonly acceptable to society. We want to make decisions based upon well-reasoned, defensible ethical principles and avoid the problems associated with only relying on intuition or personal preference. Miller CSS309

Webster Says Moral, Ethical, Virtuous, Righteous, and Noble mean conforming to a standard of what is right and good. Moral implies conforming to established sanctioned codes or accepted notions of right and wrong. Ethical may suggest the involvement of more difficult or subtle questions of rightness, fairness, or equity. Virtuous implies the possession of manifestations of moral excellence in character. Righteous stresses guiltlessness or blamelessness and often suggests the sanctimonious. Noble implies moral eminence and freedom from anything petty, mean, or dubious in conduct or character. Miller CSS309

Voluntary/Ethical Acts When we talk about right or wrong acts we are always talking about voluntary acts. Here we define an act to be voluntary if the person doing the act could have acted differently if he had chosen to. (Note all ethical theories deal with voluntary acts.) Miller CSS309

Relativism View all standards and judgments as relating to a particular context with no general validity outside that sphere. (When in Rome ..., Who's to say?, It is all a matter of opinion, That may be good for you but ..., If __ doesn't care it shouldn't bother you. ) To the relativist all moral evaluations are arbitrary preferences, depending entirely upon the individual, the situation, the culture, and the times. Miller CSS309

Relativism In the past, there was little room for relativism if you knew that the values you possessed were universal and absolute because your society or culture or religion had the absolute right ones because they had obtained them from the true god or gods. And then we learned that the earth was not the center of the universe and that there were other peoples and cultures. Miller CSS309

Dates 1492 Columbus discovers the “new world”. 1543 Copernicus “earth not center of universe”. 1577 Kepler discovers a supernova. 1641 Rene Descartes, the father of modern philosophy, observes that much of what he has been told has turned out to be false. 1517 Martin Luther starts Protestant Reformation which leads to war 1618-1648. 1715? Leibniz proposes universal language to be used to find common ground in conflicting religious and philosophical beliefs. Miller CSS309

Sources for Relativism 1.Tolerance There is a desire to practice tolerance, to take an open-minded approach towards other peoples ideas. 2.Freedom of choice Maximize freedom of choice. If there are no objective truths and correct moral principles then our range of choices is considerably larger. Miller CSS309

Sources for Relativism 3. Intellectual uncertainty According to the scientific attitude we should constantly analyze and criticize our assumptions. 4. Awareness of diversity We are acutely aware of the multiplicity of societies in the world all with their own set of beliefs. Miller CSS309

Looking at Relativism “Vulgar Relativism” is the doctrine that “no point of view about values is objectively better than any other.” The ancient Greeks refuted this position by pointing out that claiming that the best view about values was that there was no best view was a contradiction. Miller CSS309

Looking at Relativism The claim that whatever a person believes to be true is true to him leads to absurdity (a square has three sides). We can't even argue that relativism promotes tolerance because by advocating the value of tolerance we give this value objective worth and deny the relative position. Miller CSS309

But if But if relativism of values is interpreted to mean that all values are good merely for particular persons are groups or from particular points of view, (not for all persons and all points of view) implying you can’t find universal values because of an inability to rise above all particular perspectives, then judgments of good or evil, right or wrong, reduce to reflections of personal view. Miller CSS309

The Search To refute real relativism, not the vulgar kind, one needs to show how one can rise above limited points of view to establish the validity of some universal values and to say what those values might be. In the past this was easy because all that was needed was an appeal to religious or other authorities. But now those often conflict. Miller CSS309

Universalism Social Contract Theories Sentimentalist David Hume Adam Smith Hobbesian Thomas Hobbes Ideal John Locke Rousseau Teleologism Consequentialism Deontologism Formalism Altruism Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham John Stewart Mill Kantianism Immanuel Kant Egoism Miller CSS309

Sentimentalist Alternative Ethical view attributed to David Hume (1711-1776), his friend Adam Smith (1723-1790) who was also know for work in economics, and others, according to which ethical and other judgments about right and wrong, virtue and vice, are based upon sentiments of approval or disapproval that are rooted in common human sentiments of sympathy and benevolence. Miller CSS309

Sentimentalist Alternative Hume talks of common human virtues, such as sympathy, beneficence, friendliness, kindness, integrity, honesty, gentleness, and cheerfulness, and has no doubt that all right-thinking persons would prefer these virtues and shun vices such as cruelty, treachery, and dishonesty, because virtues are socially beneficial and vices, harmful. Miller CSS309

Sentimentalist Alternative Adam Smith authored a book entitled A Theory of the Moral Sentiments,in which he traced the roots of morality to common human sentiments of sympathy and benevolence. In economic theory he argues for the benefits to society of individuals pursuing their own economic self-interest. He also felt that the human sentiments of sympathy and beneficence would curb the dangers of the marketplace. Miller CSS309

Deontologism(Formalism) Here we judge rightness by looking at the behavior itself and not its consequences. (Reason based ethics) Deontology is the study of moral obligations. The name Deontology is derived from the Greek word deon which means duty. Miller CSS309

DeontologismFormalism Deontologism or Formalism can be defined as the theory that we should live in accordance with principles of right conduct. The rightness or wrongness of actions is thought to lie outside of ourselves and not in any subjective attitude we might take. Certain acts are right to do, others are wrong, and we are obliged to pursue the one and avoid the other. Miller CSS309

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Kant exerted a profound influence on philo- sophic thinking throughout the nineteenth and well into the twentieth century. He was very ordinary in his personal life, living a precise, methodical existence as a professor of logic and metaphysics. He never married, never traveled more than forty miles from Königsberg, never varied his daily routine, and when the King of Prussia asked him not to publish anymore "alarming" thoughts on religion he stopped and started publishing again only after the king died. Miller CSS309

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Kant argued that for an action to have moral content it had to be done out of an obligation (duty) to follow moral principles. His original works are serious deep reading. Practical reason is the tool we can use to gain insight in ethics and moral law. Reason about what makes sense and act accordingly. Miller CSS309

Kant’s Categorical Imperative (First formulation) “Act only on that maxim which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law” for everyone to follow. Note: This can be viewed as a restatement of the Biblical instruction “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” Miller CSS309

Kant’s Categorical Imperative (Second formulation) “Act so that you always use humanity in your own person, as well as in the person of every other, never as a means, but at the same time as an end” Note: To treat someone as an end is to respect their desires and purposes, to treat them as means is to use them for one’s own purposes. Miller CSS309

Kantianism We will sometimes see Kant’s two formulations of his categorical imperative expressed as: It is absolutely necessary for a person to treat others equally (consistency) and with respect. Consistency: If an action is not right for everyone then it is not right for anyone. Respect: Treat people with respect. Miller CSS309

ConsequentialismTeleologism Here we judge the rightness of an action by the outcomes. Altruism: You sacrifice to benefit others. Egoism: Maximize benefit or minimize harm to yourself. Utilitarianism: Seek maximum benefit for the group. Miller CSS309

Altruism An unselfish regard or devotion to the welfare of others. We will refer to altruistic acts or even altruistic lives. Putting others first with no expectation of reward for the act. Miller CSS309

Psychological Egoism Psychological Egoism argues that to pursue ones' own advantage is a psychological law of nature and because of this there is no choice to be made. An interesting consequence of this thought is that since moral actions are motivated by concern for others (and we can't do that) that moral judgments must be totally irrelevant. Miller CSS309

Ethical Egoism Ethical Egoism maintains that whether or not people do act only for themselves nevertheless they should. The best known proponents of this position is Machiavelli who wrote a handbook on manipulating people out of self interest (The Prince). Miller CSS309

Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Mill (1806-1873) "the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of persons." Everyone's happiness is important including one's own. Mill- "in the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility. 'To do as you would be done by,' and 'To love your neighbor as yourself,' constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality." Miller CSS309

Bentham/Mill Bentham worked for prison reform and revising the crime-penalty structure. Mill was politically active and helped take power away from the landed gentry. He also introduced legislation for women's voting rights. "A sacrifice which does not increase the sum total of happiness, is considered as wasted." Their aim was to reduce the amount of misery for mankind and increase the sum of human happiness. Miller CSS309

Stakeholders A stakeholder is any person or organization with a stake in the decision. Utilitarian Ethical analysis should result in a defensible ethical decision that on balance does the best for all stakeholders. (note that stakeholders are not guaranteed equal outcomes or even positive outcomes.) Miller CSS309

Calculus of pleasures (Bentham) hedon= unit of pleasure or pain.(Bentham def.) hedonism = The doctrine that pleasure or happiness is the sole or chief good in life. hedonistic calculus = a method of determining the rightness of an action by balancing the pleasures and pains it would produce. Miller CSS309

Calculus of pleasures (Bentham) The seven factors for measuring pleasure: Intensity: Why not have pleasures as strong as possible? Duration: If it's good longer is better. Certainty or Uncertainty: If you know you are going to like it give more points than if you are not sure. Miller CSS309

Calculus of pleasures (Bentham) Propinquity or Remoteness: How long do I have to wait? Fruitfulness: Will the following sensation be of the same kind? Purity: Will the following sensation be of the opposite kind? Extent: How many people are affected? Miller CSS309

Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism Act Utilitarianism Every act should be evaluated in terms of the greatest happiness principle. (Bentham) Rule Utilitarianism The greatest happiness principle should be used to establish general rules of behavior. (Mill) Miller CSS309

Social Contract Theories We will look at two types of contemporary social contract theories, Hobbesian which comes from the work of Thomas Hobbes and Ideal which comes in large part from the work of Locke and Rousseau. We will pick up John Rawls work (also ideal) when we apply ethics to the question “How Good is Good Enough?” Miller CSS309

Social Contract Theories Hobbesian social contract theories impose only the requirement that the contractors rationally seek their own enlightened self- interest. Ideal social contract theories impose certain prior constraints upon the contractors designed to ensure that the agreement will be fair. Miller CSS309

We Got Problems By now we have a number of good thoughts by a number of outstanding thinkers but there are problems with each approach. With the sentimentalist alternative we get to different absolutes depending on the culture. Kant’s always follow the rules puts us in situations where actions such as lying to save a life would be viewed as wrong. With Utilitarianism does it become right to take money forcibly from someone who doesn’t need it as much? Miller CSS309

Problems/Quest for wisdom With the social contract theories they just simply don’t all the time and we get things such as wars. Professor Kane (Univ. of Texas Austin) offers us a promising approach to discerning objective truths. He views the approach as a means to solve a number of the problems we have raised and while not an approach which will yield final answers will move us closer to final answers. Miller CSS309

Consider the Sciences “In the sciences, openness and objectivity require consideration of theories opposed to one’s own and restricting undue bias in favor of one’s own.” We use openness and objectivity in order to limit “narrowness of vision” and to search ”for the objective truth about nature.” We can do this. Miller CSS309

Openness/Tolerance After really being forced into a position of realizing that you use your point of view on what is right or wrong will be limited by your culture and history and the only supporting argument you can give for your point of view uses your point of view and since everyone else is in the same situation then a common response is openness/tolerance to other points of view. This thought can bring us back to vulgar relativism and the concept of no objective truth. But as Professor Kane argues this also can be used to move us away from relativism. Miller CSS309

We can’t be open and tolerant of everyone. You notice someone being attacked and you can do something even if all that is is to go for help. Then you can respect the views of the attacker or the victim, but not both. This is break down of Kane’s “moral sphere” where moral sphere is the sphere in which every way of life can be respected. You can’t respect all views but you can try to restore and preserve conditions in which ideal respect for all can be followed again. You choose. Openness has led us to conclude some ways of life are not worthy of our support or protection. Miller CSS309

Now What? When there is a guilty party, ie. someone who has broken the moral sphere you punish the guilty (not the innocent) using minimal force. When the moral sphere breaks down and no one is at fault negotiate. Openness has brought us to a way of finding truth and value and brings us back to treat other people as you would want to be treated and don’t kill, don’t lie, don’t steal, etc. Miller CSS309

Fundamental Moral Principle? Confucianism --- Sixth Century B.C. What you don't want done to yourself, don't do to others. Buddhism --- Fifth Century B.C. Hurt not others with that which pains thyself. Jainism --- Fifth Century B.C. In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self, and should refrain from inflicting upon others such injury as would appear undesirable to us if inflicted upon ourselves. Miller CSS309

Fundamental Moral Principle? Zoroastrianism --- Fifth Century B.C. Do not do unto others all that which is not well for oneself. Classical Philosophy Plato --- Fourth Century B.C. May I do to others as I would that they should do unto me. Hinduism Mahabharata --- Third Century B.C. Do naught to others which if done to thee would cause thee pain. Miller CSS309

Fundamental Moral Principle? Judaism Rabbi Hillel --- First Century B.C. What you don't want done to yourself, don't do to others. Christianity Jesus of Nazareth --- First Century A.D. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Sikhism --- Sixteenth Century A.D. Treat others as thou wouldst be treated thyself. Miller CSS309

Comments on Golden Rule The negative or “don’t do” versions are often referred to as the silver rule. There are always two interpretations of the Golden Rule. In the narrower interpretation you do unto others as if they shared, or would share your values. The wider interpretation is that one should allow others to pursue their values, even if those values are different from ones own. Miller CSS309

Ch0 Ethical Foundations