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LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION. LECTURE 8. INTRODUTION . Domestication of wild animals enabled people to: Produce food i.e. meat, milk, cheese and other dairy products, eggs etc. Produce leather for clothing, shoes, bags and other by-products for the manufacture of glues, drugs, fertilizers etc.

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LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

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  1. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION LECTURE 8

  2. INTRODUTION • Domestication of wild animals enabled people to: • Produce food i.e. meat, milk, cheese and other dairy products, eggs etc. • Produce leather for clothing, shoes, bags and other by-products for the manufacture of glues, drugs, fertilizers etc. • Provide means of transport e.g. camels, donkeys and horses. • Provide farm power e.g. water buffaloes and bullocks for ploughing fields.

  3. Classification of Farm Animals • Animals can be classified either • Scientifically or • According to their nutrition (feeding habits) • Scientifically • All common farm animals of the tropics except poultry and rabbits belong to the • class Mammalia and • order Artiodactyla. • Cattle, sheep and goats belong to the family Bovidae whereas pigs belong to the family Suidae.

  4. Classification of Farm Animals • Cattle belong to the Bos genus, the sheep belong the Ovis genus, the Goats to Capra genus and the pigs to Suis genus. • The domestic rabbit belongs to the family Leporidae and is derived from the species Oryctolagus cuniculus. • According to their nutrition farm animals can be grouped into • Ruminants • Non-Ruminants • Herbivores

  5. Ruminants • These are animals with a complex stomach of four compartments. • One compartment is the rumen where the food that has just been eaten is temporarily stored. • The cellulose in the plant cell walls is digested in the rumen by the rumen bacteria. • From the rumen the food is passed into another compartment known as the reticulum.

  6. Ruminants • From the reticulum, food is regurgitated back into the mouth where more chewing swallowing of the food occurs again. • This process is referred to as chewing the cud. • The other two compartments in which further digestion takes place are the omasum and abomasum

  7. Non-ruminants • These are animals with one stomach compartment and omnivorous habits • They include the pigs and poultry. • Poultry describes all forms of domesticated birds including chickens, turkey, ducks, guinea fowl, pea fowl, pigeons, gees and ostriches. • Pigs are particularly important in non-moslem countries where they are increasingly being reared under intensive conditions.

  8. Herbivores • These are non-ruminant plant eaters • They include • Rabbits, • Guinea pigs, • Larger farm animals such as • Camels • Horses • Donkeys • The larger animals are used mainly for transportation and as farm power.

  9. Types and Classes of Domesticated cattle • Cattle are categorized as • Beef Cattle • Dairy Cattle • Dual purpose cattle • Draught Cattle • Beef Cattle • These cattle are best suited for beef production having a great width and depth of body. • The udder is usually poorly developed and little milk is produced. • These animals are efficient in the conversion of feed into high quality beef for human consumption.

  10. Types and Classes of Domesticated cattle • Dairy Cattle • Have a lean angular frame with a well-developed mammary system, moderate girth and deep belly. • One of the most important characteristic of dairy cattle is good temperament. • Dual purpose cattle • These are intermediate between beef and dairy cattle in conformation and performance. • Many indigenous breeds in the tropics are used as beef, dairy and draught animals.

  11. Types and Classes of Domesticated cattle • Draught Cattle • These are characterized by great size and length of body and strength given by their rugged form. • In many parts of the tropics, oxen are still used as a source of power for tilling the land.

  12. Adaptation of Livestock to Tropical Environments • Early attempts to export temperate breeds of livestock met with dismal success. • After a relatively short time in the tropics, the productivity of many breeds of exotic stock decreased, their condition deteriorated and they became susceptible to tropical diseases. • In the recent years agricultural scientists have devoted attention to the subject of adaptation of livestock to hot climates. • Thus the environmental physiology of farm livestock, the effects of solar radiation and heat stress on their productivity in tropical and subtropical areas have been well documented.

  13. Adaptation of Livestock to Tropical Environments • The basic principles of thermal adaptation are common to all vertebrates. • However different types of external covering (hair, wool, feathers and bristles) and the different types of underlying skin structure, give rise to variations in the mechanism of heat loss and the maintenance homeothermy (maintenance of an almost constant internal body temperature).

  14. Effects of Heat on Tropical Livestock • A temperate animal taken to a hot climate is affected in two distinct ways. • Directly by the influence of high temperature and intense radiation and possibly humidity on the animal itself • Indirectly by the effect of heat on the animal’s environment including natural feed supply.

  15. Direct Effects of Heat • Every vertebrate animal has a particular range of environmental temperature to which it is adapted and in which it is able to live most efficiently at minimal metabolic rate. • This is what is referred to as the comfort zone. • When animals are kept at temperatures below or above their comfort zones their metabolic rate is increased, either to keep the animal warm or to assist in heat dissipation.

  16. Direct Effects of Heat • Evaporative losses of water from the body surfaces are the most fundamental processes concerned with heat regulation. • At low environmental temperatures, non-evaporative cooling (i.e. loss of heat due to conduction, convection and radiation) is responsible for more heat loss than evaporative cooling. • As the environmental temperature rises, the proportion of evaporative cooling rises and the proportion of non-evaporative cooling falls.

  17. Direct Effects of Heat • The principal effect of sweating is to limit the rise in skin temperature. • Since skin temperature largely governs respiration rate a high sweating rate will be associated with a relatively low respiration rate. • The major ways in which animals adapt to tropical heat include: • Heat tolerance • Coat characteristics • Skin pigmentation.

  18. Heat tolerance • A heat tolerant animal is one that has a high efficiency of energy utilization and allows productive processes to continue at high level without the production of excessive amounts of heat. • Heat tolerance index is used to describe the heat tolerance range of different animal species.

  19. Coat characteristics • The role played by the hair coat in thermal balance in a hot environment is twofold: • It affords a certain degree of protection against radiant heat from the sun. • It interferes with the dissipation of heat from the animals body surface. • The most important characteristics include: • Coat color • Coat Texture • Skin pigmentation

  20. Coat characteristics • Coat colour is important in reflecting or absorbing solar radiation. • Hair fibres which are light in colour reflect more solar radiation than hairs which are dark. • The amount of sunlight reflected can be as much as 50% in the case of a white-haired animal, but considerably less with a dark-coloured animal. • The coat colour is of much importance during periods of high light intensity (summer) than during periods of low light intensity (winter).

  21. Coat characteristics • Coat Texture affects the mean absorption coefficient of animals. • The rectal temperatures and respiration rates of Woolly-coated animals are invariably higher than those of animals with fine, glossy coats. • The nature of the hair has a bearing on the insulative properties of the coat. • Skin pigmentation • A pigmented skin is most desirable in the tropics since it is less susceptible to sunburn and photosensitivity disorders.

  22. Indirect Effects • The most important indirect effect of climate on tropical livestock is that associated with water requirement and feed intake. • The quantity and quality of feed on offer to tropical livestock is primarily dependent upon the climatic factors influencing, and possibly limiting, plant growth. • The second most important indirect effect of climate on farm animals is its influence on the distribution of the major pests and diseases and the arthropod vectors which are responsible for their spread. • For example, the distribution of Tsetse fly is directly related to the presence or absence of suitable breeding sites, and these are themselves influenced by the climate of that region.

  23. Animal Feeding/Nutrition • Animals require feed rations that are complete and balanced nutritionally. • Each species and category of animal within a species has different nutritional requirements that must be calculated with care to ensure maximum productivity. • The two main types of feedstuffs are • Roughage, with high crude fibre content, and • Concentrates with low crude fibre content.

  24. Roughage • Roughage is fed fresh or in the form of hay or silage to supply some protein, energy, vitamins and minerals. • The commonly used grasses are Guinea grass, Elephant grass and giant star grass. • Maize, millet and sorghum are usually cut for making silage. • The common legumes include clover. • Concentrate feeds provide energy and protein needs.

  25. Forage Conservation • The surplus grasses and cultivated crops produced during the growing season can be conserved a hay or silage to be utilized during the dry season when available grass becomes fibrous and unpalatable. • Hay • Forages are cut and dried naturally, by air and sun drying, or artificially. • The forage is cut at sufficiently early stage of maturity to ensure nutritional excellence. • Drying usually lowers the water content below 25% so that the hay can be stored without becoming mouldy or fermented.

  26. Forage Conservation • Hay • Properly cured hay is close to the original forage in nutritional value. • Silage • Grasses and cultivated crops such as maize, sorghum and millet are conserved as silage by chopping them into pieces, placing them in a silo and compressing them sufficiently to exclude most of the air. • Fermentation of soluble carbohydrates takes place producing organic acids, mainly lactic acid, with some ethanoic acid.

  27. Forage Conservation • Silage • The low pH of the mass prevents growth of undesirable bacteria that cause putrefaction (making it to go bad). • Fermentation ceases after sufficient acid has been produced. • The silage will keep for a long time with little change if stored in airtight bins and protected from rainwater.

  28. Animal Health • Animal diseases and disorders cause considerable losses, which include: • Death of the animals • Increased cost of production • Lowered quality of meat, hides and skins • Greatly reduced efficiency of animal production • Some diseases and parasites are transmitted from animals to humans by contact, contamination of water or when a person eats food products from a diseased animal.

  29. Signs of ill health in farm animals • Disease is any condition of the animal, which differs from normal health. • All the vital processes of feeding, digestion, respiration, blood circulation movement and all related activities function satisfactorily in healthy animals. • Departures from some or all of these processes indicate ill health.

  30. Signs of ill health in farm animals • Signs of ill health in farm animals include: • Dullness. • Restlessness or nervousness. • Loss of appetite or complete avoidance of feeding • Indiscriminate feeding • Severe loss of body mass in severe cases • Uncoordinated movement • Death

  31. Signs of Good Health • The state of health of an animal can be assessed from observations on: • Pulse Rate • Body temperature • Body Conformation • Condition of skin or coat • Visible mucous membranes • Feeding habits

  32. Signs of Good Health • Pulse Rate • This is the rate and force of blood passing through the blood vessels per minute. • This reflects the heart beat. • The normal pulse rates per minute for cattle is 50-70, for the horse is 28-42 and for the sheep is 68-90. • When the pulse rate is outside the normal range, unless it can be explained physiologically (e.g. exercises increase rate) ill health may be suspected.

  33. Signs of Good Health • Body temperature • Normal body temperatures in °C are: • Cattle 37.6-39 • Horse 37.5-38.3 • Sheep 38.3-39.3 • Pig 38.3-39.3 • Any change in temperature above or below the normal range may indicate ill health.

  34. Signs of Good Health • Body Conformation • Excessive fatness may result from overfeeding or disease while leanness or emaciation may be a result of under-feeding, starvation or disease. • A normal animal usually shows the proportions or body organs and tissues characteristics of the breed or strain of the animal.

  35. Signs of Good Health • Condition of skin or coat • The skin of a healthy a normal is usually smooth and slips back easily when pulled. • The hair is bright, clean and unruffled. • Extremely dry hair or staring coat where the hair sticks up, are symptoms of ill heath. • Excessive sweating causes the hair to form a mat on the skin and indicates ill health it is not a result of exercise. • Similarly, loss of hair, abnormal out-growths or swellings of the skin, eruptions and boils, presence of parasites on or under the skin of animals are all signs of ill-health.

  36. Signs of Good Health • Visible mucous membranes • The inside linings of the eyelids, nose, mouth and the external urinogenital tract of normal animals are usually moist and pinkish. • When an animal is ill, these linings may appear bright red or pale and anaemic or yellowish or bluish depending on the type of disease from which the animal is suffering.

  37. Signs of Good Health • Feeding habits • Healthy animals consume enough food when available according to nutritional needs. • A sick animal may develop abnormal appetite for non-feed materials and eats anything indiscriminately. • Healthy ruminants chew the cud in between feeding but sick animals do not and in some cases the animal may vomit the ingested feed. • The consistency, texture, colour, smell and frequency of defecation or urination may also indicate ill health.

  38. Causes Diseases and Disorders • Animal diseases and disorders can be caused by living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes and trematodes (helminthes), ticks, lice and flies and by non-living substances such as chemical poisons. • Other causes include insufficient or poor-quality feed as well as deficiencies of nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, mineral elements and vitamins. • Some diseases or disorders are due to one or more of these causes.

  39. Causes Diseases and Disorders • Poorly fed animals are more prone to succumb to attacks by living organism. • Under the traditional system of animal husbandry in the tropics, animals are poorly fed. • A cause that excites a disease is always directly associated with it whereas a predisposing cause reduces an animal’s resistance to the exciting cause. • The causes can be categorized as: • Physical causes • Mechanical causes • Chemical causes • Biological causes

  40. Causes Diseases and Disorders • Physical causes • Abnormal ambient temperatures are important although in the tropics it does not fluctuate so much. • Animals imported from temperate regions are most affected.

  41. Causes Diseases and Disorders • Mechanical causes • Pressure on body tissues from tumours or parasites, polyps (small growths) in the nose and urinogenital system are often disabling especially where they affect a vital organ such as the brain or liver. • Obstruction of the air and food passages by feed or other materials or strictures of the orifices caused by contraction of the muscle or coats are other common mechanical problems.

  42. Causes Diseases and Disorders • Chemical causes • Retained waste products of body metabolism such as urea, other nitrogenous compounds or excessive carbodioxide can cause illness as well as poisonous substances such as acids and caustic alkalis. • Heavy metals and animal toxins may be inhaled, ingested or taken in through the skin.

  43. Causes Diseases and Disorders • Biological causes • A large number of parasitic bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, helminthes (worms) insects and ticks actively invade animal tissues and organs. • These invasions result in localized or generalized disease conditions that may be fatal in very severe cases. • Feeding animals on unbalanced feed or dirty water can cause nutritional deficiencies or introduce disease-causing organisms respectively.

  44. Diagnosis of Disease • This is normally done by veterinarians through a combination of physical examination, observation of clinical symptoms and chemical and microbiological tests in the laboratory. • The results give a basis for the application of preventive and curative measures to combat or control the disease. • The carcass of a dead animal is examined for any signs of lesions of the killing disease in a post-mortem examination.

  45. Transmission of Disease • Diseases are transmitted from one animal to another when pathogens escape from an infected animal and spread to healthy animals. • Many disease-causing organisms are destroyed by the defensive mechanisms of the host, • others are eliminated in its secretions and discharges and may invade other animals or re-infect the same animal. • Thus an animal that dies from an infective disease should be properly disposed of by burning or burying the carcass deep in the soil. • This ensures that the pathogens are destroyed and do not spread the infection.

  46. Transmission of Disease • In some cases the pathogen and its host can co-exist so that the pathogen does not produce disease symptoms and the animal’s body does not destroy the pathogen. • Predisposing factors such as poor nutrition or inter-current diseases can upset the balance and allow the pathogen to become infective. • The animal then develops the disease symptoms. • High levels of nutrition, management and sanitation help animals to resist invading pathogens.

  47. Sources of Infection • The ways by which pathogens reach their hosts include: • Direct or immediate contact with other diseased animals resulting in the transfer of the disease. Skin diseases and some venereal diseases are transferred in this way. • Indirect contact with objects such as dirty utensils, vehicles used to transport sick animals or railings in animal houses which may carry over pathogenic organisms from sick to healthy animals. • Contact with symptomless carriers. • Soil-inhabiting spores of some bacteria invade animals through wounds e.g. tetanus, anthrax and clostridial infections are often picked up by grazing or trekking animals.

  48. Sources of Infection • Ingestion of contaminated feed. • Airborne infection in overcrowded housing e.g. most respiratory diseases caused by bacteria, fungi or viruses. • Blood-sucking and biting flies, fleas, lice and ticks transmit disease organisms through their bites. E.g. Trypanosomiasis, tick fever and some filarial infections. • Condition loss due to stress. • Some bacteria live in mucous membranes of animals without causing disease but in cases of stress, the organism becomes pathogenic.

  49. Routes of infection • Main route of entry of parasites and pathogens into an animal’s body is through the organs and tissues of the animal including the alimentary canal, urinogenital organs, eyes, nose, and skin. • The skin, which serves as a protective coat over the body organs and tissues, may become a route of entry for pathogens wherever it is mechanically damaged or weakened. • Many fleas, ticks and lice attach themselves directly to the skin or merely live on the surface of the skin protected by the hair or the feathers. In sucking blood or biting the animal, they inject pathogens. • Pre-natal and post-natal infections of young animals may occur through the placenta or poorly managed umbilical cords.

  50. Routes of infection • Some pathogens of poultry can be transmitted through the egg from an infected hen. • The respiratory tract, conjuctiva and mammary glands are also routes of infection.

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