Thematic Power Point

1. Thematic Power Point Ellis H. Adler AP US History, Period 1 Dr. Crichfield 1/07/10

2. Information section

3. Events in Germany Influence on Jewish Life in America • Many of Napoleon’s decrees were overturned • He granted citizenship ship to Jews but that was that was overturned in many countries and Jews lost citizenship • Many Jews converted so that they could keep their rights • This made the Rabbi’s concerned • One group felt that if they modernized Judaism that more Jews would stay in the religion • The reform movement was started in Germany • There was still tension and many of the German Jews began to immigrate to America, bringing Reform Judaism with them • Between 1820 and 1860 German Jewish immigration increased the American Jewish population from 10,000 –over 150,000. • The Reform movement in America was begun by German Jews

4. Reform Judaism in America • Reform Judaism in America began in South Carolina • A group of German Jews broke off from their synagogue to create their own congregation • A movement for reform began to develop in several other locations. • The Reform movement has gone through many changes. • At the beginning, in the 1880’s it was very radical. • It was felt that only Jewish laws that "elevate and sanctify our lives" should be accepted and customs and laws that are "not adapted to the views and habits of modern civilization" should be rejected • Many traditional Jewish laws were tossed out • People were not required to keep kosher or wear Kippa. (small cap on head), prayers were done in English or German, man and women prayed together (they prayed in different areas in Orthodox). There were choirs and organs as part of the service. In many ways, the service started to resemble a church. (Origins of Reform Judaism) • 4. Over the years some Jewish laws were reinstated • Under the influence of Rabbi Isaac Mayer Cincinnati became an area with a strong Jewish reform movement. • In 1857 he wrote the first siddur, Jewish prayer book, that was edited for American Jews. • Found the Union of American Hebrew Congregations in 1873.-organized several synagogues together and was meant to support Jewish education and be a support for the community. • Found Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati in 1875. • Found the Central Conference of American Rabbis-organization of rabbis. • Organizations were started by the Reform congregations that supported the Jewish community • Educational Alliance on the Lower East Side of NY • The Young Men's Hebrew Association, • The American Jewish Committee • The Anti-Defamation League of B'nai Brith. (Jews in America, Our Story)

5. Jews and Slavery in America • The Jews, like many early Americans had individual views on slavery • For the most part, Jews did not own slaves. Some southern Jews did participate in slavery but many did not. A few Jewish merchants participated. The Jewish impact on the slavery trade was not big. • Aaron Levy was a Jew from Pennsylvania • He bought a female black slave named Rachael • He went back to Philadelphia with Rachael and immediately freed her • He gave her an education • Eventually the two married • Most Southern Jews did not speak out against slavery. Some believed in slavery and others were afraid of prosecution. • The exception was Elias Levy ( no relation to Aaron) who was a Florida sugar planter. • He wrote, "A Plan for the Abolition of Slavery." It was not well received in the South. • Levy’s son was a slave owner. He left Judaism and changed his name to David Yulee. He became the first Senator of American of Jewish heritage(but not practicing) • Judah P. Benjamin, was a slaveholder from Louisiana, in 1852. He was the first practicing Jew to be elected to the senate. He was active during the Civil War • Philip J. Joachimson was a NY Jewish lawyer who won the first successful anti-slavery prosecution

6. Jews involvement with Industry • Jews were involved in many aspects of industry • They also helped finance industry • Many Jews rose to middle class • The larger Jewish influence on industry was in the late 1800’s when there was a large influx of Russian Jews

7. Partial freedom • The Constitution only had power over the federal government and didn’t stop the states from religious discrimination • Until, 1877 Jews did not have full rights in all states • After the passage of the constitution, many states withdrew their requirement of religious test oaths for holding political office but some states did not • Maryland refused to change its requirements and this became a major area of debate • Jews were unsuccessful in their attempts to remove this law • Thomas Kennedy tried to remove this law in 1818, but partisan politics kept him from doing so • The Christian Oath remained until the “Jew Bill” was passed in 1826 • Jew Bill • The bill was passed by a single vote, and said that Jews can declare belief “in a future state of rewards and punishment.” • Thomas Kennedy support of this bill caused him to be removed from the House, however he got his seat in back, enabling him to see the passage of this bill

8. Early 19th Century Immigration • Due to the Louisiana Purchase between Thomas Jefferson and Napoleon, the United States doubled in size • Europe was facing a time of turmoil and political strife making America a land of opportunity • Over 200,000 Jews came over during the migration in hopes of economic and political freedom • Although Jews settled in all the states, the majority settled in the Northeast. New York became a popular destination for Jewish immigrants. Many opened up their own businesses. It was hard sometimes for Jewish immigrants to find jobs outside the Jewish community so many Jews would often group together in the same area. Many opened up their own shops because it was easier then being hired elsewhere. • Some left NY for Philadelphia during the Revolution and over the next century the Philadelphia Jewish population grew • Many worked in the garment industry-especially in Boston

9. Going West • Most Jews stayed in eastern cities, but some went west due to the gold rush • Travel by steamships on river opened up a practical means to trade with the Midwest • Cincinnati, Ohio became an important center of commerce due to its location on the Ohio River • Jewish population expanded to include 8,000 by 1860 • This is significant because it one of the largest population of Jews in America at this time • Spurred on by Isaac Mayer Wise Cincinnati became a center for the Jewish Reform movement • New Orleans became part of America in the Louisiana Purchase, and soon became one of America’s largest citie • Jews came to New Orleans from the Alsace region of Franc • Judah Touro came to New Orleans and established himself as a great merchant and investor • In 1836 Jews went to Texas because of commercial opportunities, when Texas gained its independence • The first cemetery was created in 1844 • A synagogue followed the creation of the cemetery in 1854 • Levi Strauss was a German Jewish immigrant who traveled to San Francisco during the gold rush. He developed a pair of pants that were more durable for the people who were looking for gold. Copper metal rivets were used to strengthen the pockets. He joined his friend Davis to start manufacturing the pants. The Levi Strauss Company was founded in 1853 and the American Jean was born. • Adolf Sutro moved west. He developed a method to drain water and dangerous gases from the miners. He later became mayor of San Francisco.

10. Social Change • Rebecca Gratz worked on reforms to make life better for minorities. • Educator as part of the education reform movement. She encouraged other Jewish women to participate in civic matters. She founded the Jewish Foster Home, Female Hebrew Benevolent Society, and the first of its kind the Hebrew Sunday School. She helped write the first textbook for Jewish children. She also worked to protect the rights of other minorities and woman. (Jewish History Museum) • The Levy’s were a family that met several Indians as they traveled west. They petitioned the president to null the treaties that took the land away from the Indians. Their petition was dismissed but they continued to work for rights of Indians. • There were several Jewish support agencies and charities set up around the United states. • In Charleston they started holding Purim Balls. Purim is a Jewish holiday celebrating Esther saving the Jews. People dress in costumes and gifts are exchanged. • At the ball people brought gifts for the poor. The Balls became popular events around the country and were attended by Christians and Jews. • Bnai Brith was formed in1843. Its name means Sons of the Covenant. It was developed to support people if they were illness and other “untoward events”. • B’nai B’rith is still around today and has expanded to include youth groups. Carrying on the tradition, my mother was a member and now I am a member. B’nai B’rith hs become the largest Jewish fraternity world wide. • B’nai B’rith used some similar traditions as the Masons such as secret handshakes, and rituals.

11. Crisis of the Union • As a controversy over slavery developed Jews became active in the debate • Most Jews were against slavery and many spoke as abolitionists. There were some Jews who supported slavery or did not want to take sides • Rabbi David Einhorn gave sermons against slavery. He said it was “rebellion against God.” He was an active abolitionist. He was threatened by mob in Baltimore and moved to Philadelphia to continue his work. • Rabbi Raphall from a New York congregation spoke against extreme abolitionists. He did not support slavery but felt the Bible said nothing against slavery. His remarks were condemned in the Jewish press

12. Railroads Impact • As the railroads opened many Jewish merchants built businesses along the route • Jewish Traders traveled and brought goods to lumber towns, mining communities and isolated farms • Trade was a major source of income for many Jews

13. Texas and Jewish Settlers • A small amount of Jews settled in Texas in 1820’s and 30’s when Mexico still had control of the region • When Texas gained its independence, Houston became the capital. • Jews settled in Houston for business opportunities • The Texas Jewish population grew and formed synagogue in 1855 • Solomon Spielgelberg opened mercantile business and his five brothers joined him. It grew to one of Houston’s biggest businesses

14. Union and Disunion • Jews divided over slavery debate • The majority was against slavery but some supported the choice and still others had slaves. • Even the leaders were divided • Rabbi David Einhorn spoke up against slavery and was an active abolitionist • Reverend Morris Raphall felt that radical abolitionists would divide the country and felt the union should be protected. • Einhorn called on the Jewish press to condemn Raphall’s remarks

15. Civil War • 8 to 10 thousand Jews fought in Civil War • Most fought for Union • Judah Benjamin held prominent positions for Confederate Army • He attended Yale at 14 • He was in U.S. senate • When Jefferson Davis became head of Confederate, he gave Benjamin a place in his cabinet • Benjamin was Attorney General and then secretary of War and then Secretary of State for Confederate • After the war he moved to England • He was a slave owner • Septima Levy helped wounded soldiers on both sides • She was married to a Union General • She wrote, “I never fully understood realized the fratricidal character of the conflict until I lost my idolized brother Dave of the Southern army one day, and was nursing my Northern husband back to life the next.”

16. Civil War (continued) • General Grant’s- General Orders No. 11 • In 1862 there was a black market trade for cotton that developed in Tennessee and Mississippi • Many Jews and non-Jews took part in the trading but the Union military concentrated on the Jews • In Dec. 1862 Grant expelled Jews as a class, from the area that was under his rule. • Jews protested, the general media supported the Jews • The Missouri Lodge of B’nai B’rith wrote complaint to president • President Lincoln made Grant repeal the order. • Order was repealed Jan. 17, 1863 • Colonel Max Friedman • Led the Union’s 5th Cavalry-the “Cameron Dragoons” • It was made up mostly of Jews from Pennsylvania • Jewish Chaplain • The group led by Max Freidman elected a Jew as their chaplain but there was a regulation stating that all army chaplains had to be of some Christian denomination • After several tries and support from the Jewish community, the chaplain law was revised on July 17, 1862 • It was a victory for religious freedom and a chaplain of any faith could serve • Lincoln appointed Rabbi Frankel to the first authorized chaplain in American armed forces • Reconstruction • Many northern Jews went to the South in search of business opprotunities

17. Statue of Liberty • Emma Lazurus was a famous Jewish poet • Wrote The New Colossus, a famous sonnet in 1883 • The sonnet is on the Statue of Liberty • Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, • With conquering limbs astride from land to land; • Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand • A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame • Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name • Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand • Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command • The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. • "Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she • With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor, • Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, • The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. • Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, • I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"

18. Hebrew Union College • Founded in Cincinatti-1875 • Oldest institution dedicated to higher Jewish education in Western hemisphere • Prepares rabbis, cantors, educators, and other workers • There are four campuses today—Cincinnati, New York, Los Angeles, and Jerusalem

19. European Jews Immigrate to America • Took place between 1880-19324 • Most of the people who immigrated never returned home • Left because of poverty and rulers that were oppressive • Life was not good for Jews in Europe • The country was suffering from overpopulation due to the influx • The legislation was oppressive • They were low class • Violent attacks against Jews-progroms-+ in large numbers between 1880-1924 • This is why many left • Steamships brought the Jews to America • Many of the immigrants first went through New York • Boston, Baltimore, or Philadelphia were other places the Jews came • Ellis Island was opened in 1892

20. Russian Jews that immigrated to America were poorer and less educated then the American German Jewish community. They were also different culturally • In 1880 almost 90% of American synagogues were reform • In 1890, after the Russian Jews began to arrive there were almost 50% orthodox synagogues-mostly started by Russian immigrants • The disagreement grew between the reform and orthodox communities and eventually a third movement emerged that was in the middle between the two. This in-between group is Conservative Judaism • German Jews feared that anti-semitism would emerge because of the influx of poor Jews

21. Conservative Judaism • It emerged after the "Trefah Dinner"-a dinner held in Cincinnati in 1883. • Held between reform and orthodox Jews to bring them together • The dinner failed because the Reform Jews, who made the menu, ignored the Jewish dietary laws. Shell fish was served and this is not allowed. • The Orthodox walked out. • In response, a group formed a movement that was a “compromise” between reform and orthodox. They were called conservative • The movement grew, especially in second and third generation immigrants • The Jewish Theological Seminary was founded in 1886 – a school to produce Conservative Rabbinic leadership. The formation of the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism (Klinger)

22. Industrial Revolution • Many Jewish women worked in the garment industry • The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire occurred in 1911 • killed 146 mainly young Jewish women • , led to the creation of better and safer working conditions for all Americans • As a response to the bad conditions, labor unions formed-Jews played large role in formation of these unions

23. People

24. Rebecca Gratz (1781-1869) • Rebecca Gratz was alive during the industrial revolution, which also spur on reforms to make life better for minorities. Rebecca Gratz participated in this era as an activist and as an educator as part of the education reform movement. Thomas Sully who made a picture of Rebecca Gratz said about her beauty, “All that a princess of blood Royal might have coveted.” She created a new window for Jewish women to participate in civic matters. She founded the Jewish Foster Home, Female Hebrew Benevolent Society, and the first of its kind the Hebrew Sunday School. She helped write the first textbook for Jewish children.

25. Levi Strauss (1829-1902) • Levi was a German Jewish immigrant who traveled to San Francisco during the gold rush. He developed a pair of pants that were more durable for the people who were looking for gold. Copper metal rivets were used to strengthen the pockets. He joined his friend Davis to start manufacturing the pants. The Levi Strauss Company was founded in 1853 and the American Jean was born. Levi Strauss Company grew to make Levi a multimillionaire. He never married and when he died he left the company to his four nephews. He also gave millions to the Pacific Hebrew Orphan Asylum and the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum

26. Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise • Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise immigrated from Bohemia. He first moved to N.Y. and 5 years later moved to Cincinnati. He was a large influence on Reform Judaism in the U.S. In 1857 he wrote the first siddur, Jewish prayer book, that was edited for American Jews. He found the Union of American Hebrew Congregations in 1873. This organized several synagogues together and was meant to support Jewish education and be a support for the community. He also started the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati in 1875. He also formed the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) in 1889. It was an organization of rabbis.

27. Aaron Levy • Aaron Levy found Aaronsburg Pennsylvania. He bought a female black slave named Rachael. He went back to Philadelphia with Rachael and immediately freed her. He gave her an education. Eventually the two married. educated her and he married her. She is buried in a Jewish cemetery.

28. Emma Lazarus • Emma Lazurus came from a large family of seven children, in which she was the fourth born to Moshe Lazarus and Esther Nathan. She was well taught, and studied literature from America and England and knew several languages—German, French and Italian. Lazarus became a very famous poet. She is best known for her sonnet, “The New Colossus” which she wrote in 1883. This work of hers is part of the Statue of Liberty. She was a strong advocate of Zionism (arguing for a Jewish homeland) which is remarkable because the term was not even invented for more than 10 years after her struggle.

29. Judah Benjamin • Judah Benjamin lived from 1811-1884. Although, he originally was a British subject from the West Indies he later moved to America. Once the Confederacy was formed, Judah Benjamin joined the new nation. He is best known for his politics. He was a member of the Louisianna House of Representatives, as well as a US Senator from Louisianna. This is a major deal because it means he is the second Jewish person to be elected senator. He was so popular, he had to decline twice the offer to be part of the US Supreme Court, which he was the first Jew ever asked to join.

30. 10 questions

31. 1st 5 questions • What state did Reform Judaism begin in the U.S.? • South Carolina • Philadelphia • New York • Rhode Island • What group of Jewish immigrants influenced the start of the American Jewish Reform movement? • Russian Jews • Spanish Jews • German Jews • French Jews • Where did the Jewish Reform grow strongest? • New York City • Cincinnati • Philadelphia • Jacksonville • What were some ideas of the Jewish Reform movement? • They did away with some Jewish laws and traditions such as kosher laws, wearing and wearing a kippa. They translated prayer book. • They became more strict • They through out the old laws and made new ones • Were most Jewish Americans influential in the slave trade? • Yeas • No • Half/half

32. 2nd 5 terms • Did some Jews own slaves? • No they did not • Yes, mostly Southern Jews • Yes, mostly Northern Jews • Yes, mostly Western Jews • Were any Jews abolitionists? Can you name one? • Yes. Elias Levy • No, none participated • No, they were for slavery • Did reform Judaism change over the years? • Yes. It became less radical and accepted some traditions and laws back into the practice of Reform Judaism. • No • It became more radical • Who was Aaron Levy? • He died in the Civil War • He was in the Senate • He bought, freed, educated and married Rachael who was born a slave. • Who was Isaac Mayer Wise? • He was a Reform Rabbi in Cincinnati who helped organize Reform Judaism and also founded Jewish College. • He bought, freed, educated and married Rachael who was born a slave • He was in the Senate

33. 10 Answers • What state did Reform Judaism begin in the U.S.? South Carolina • What group of Jewish immigrants influenced the start of the American Jewish Reform movement? The German Jews • Where did the Jewish Reform grow strongest? Cincinnati • What were some ideas of the Jewish Reform movement? They did away with some Jewish laws and traditions such as kosher laws, wearing and wearing a kippa. They translated prayer book. • Were most Jewish AMericans influential in the slave trade?No • Did some Jews own slaves? Yes, mostly Southern Jews • Were any Jews abolitionists? Can you name one? Yes. Elias Levy • Did reform Judaism change over the years? Yes. It became less radical and accepted some traditions and laws back into the practice of Reform Judaism. • Who was Aaron Levy? He bought, freed, educated and married Rachael who was born a slave. • Who was Isaac Mayer Wise? He was a Reform Rabbi in Cincinnati who helped organize Reform Judaism and also founded Jewish College.

34. 1st 5 Questions • Which state was a major area of debate, after refusing to get rid of its Christian oath requirement to hold office? • A) New York • B) South Carolina • C) Maryland • D) Florida • Why did Jews move west: • A) Exploration • B) Gold Rush • C) Land • D) To escape religious persecution • Who created the first Hebrew Sunday School? • A) Rebecca Gratz • B) Thomas Kennedy • C) Mordecia Noah • D) Isaac Wise • What city’s Jewish population grew to 8,000 by 1860 because of its location on the water? • A) Charleston • B) Washington DC • C) New Orleans • D) Cincinnati • Why did Levi Strauss develop jeans? • A)make more comfortable pants • B)He wanted to develop pants that lasted longer so miners wouldn’t wear out their jeans • C)He wanted to move fashion in a new direction • D)He saw Americans needed wider cut pants

35. 2nd 5 Questions • Jews developed what annual charity event to collect presents for the poor? • A)Passover Ball • B)Hanukah Ball • C) Purim Ball • D) Freedom Ball • What social fraternity developed in America in the 1800’s became the largest Jewish fraternity in the world? • A)B’nai B’rith • B) Tsedakah • C)Reform movement • D) Masons • Where was the first Reform Congregation? • A) Ohio • B) South Caolina • C) New York • D) Philadelphia • Jews who settled in New Orleans came mostly from what country? • A)France • B)Germany • C)Russia • D)England • The Reform movement changed what traditions? • A) allowed men and women to prayer together • B) did more prayers in English • C) did away with Kosher rules • D) All of the above

36. 10 answers • Which state was a major area of debate, after refusing to get rid of its Christian oath requirement to hold office? Answer: C) Maryland • Why did Jews move west: Answer: B) Gold Rush • Who created the first Hebrew Sunday School? Answer: A) Rebecca Gratz • What city’s Jewish population grew to 8,000 by 1860 because of its location on the water? Answer: D) Cincinnati • Why did Levi Strauss develop jeans? answerB) He wanted to develop pants that lasted longer so miners wouldn’t wear out their pants • Jews developed what annual charity event to collect presents for the poor? answerC)Purim Ball • What social fraternity developed in America in the 1800’s became the largest Jewish fraternity in the world?Answer A) B’nai B’rith • Where was the first Reform Congregation?answerB) South Carolina • Jews who settled in New Orleans came mostly from what country?A)France • The Reform movement changed what traditions? D) all of above

37. 1st 5 Questions • What was a major source of income for many Jews? • Trade • teaching • farming • Fishing • Who was Solomon Spielgelberg? • He was in the US Senate • He was a representative • He was in the Confederate Army • He a business and Texas and hid 5 brothers joined • Who was Judah Benjamin? • He served in the Confederacy • He was in the Senate • First Jew considered for Supreme Court • Who was Septima Levy? • First woman to fight for the US • A nurse who kept specific records • Married to an Union soldier and wrote about her account of the war • Who was Max Friedman? • He was elected chaplain and the rule had to be revised since he wasn’t Christian • A soldier in the Union • Soldier in the Confederacy

38. 2nd 5 questions • What is special about “The New Colossus” written by Emma Lazaruz? • It evoked many anti-slavery attitudes in the North • It explained Jewish traditions • It was on the Statue of Liberty • It was burned in a pogrom as a symbol of the hatred against Jews in Europe • Where was the Hebrew Union College founded? • New York City • Cincinnati • Philadelphia • Little Rock • Why did many Jews leave Europe? • The Inquisition • Expelled • Poverty and oppressive rulers • Just poverty • Where did the Jews mostly first come to America? • Boston • Philadelphia • Rhode Island • New York • What side did Jews fight on during the Civil War? Union Confederate Both Union and. Confederate

39. 10 Answers • What was a major source of income for many Jews? Answer: Trade • Who was Solomon Spielgelberg? Answer: He opened a business and Texas and his five brothers joined him • Who was Judah Benjamin? Answer: All of the above • Who was Septima Levy? Answer: Married to an Union soldier and wrote about her account of the war • Who was Max Friedman? Answer: He was elected chaplain and the rule had to be revised since he wasn’t Christian • What was special about “The New Colossal” written by Emma Lazarus? It is on Statue of Liberty • Where was the Hebrew Union College Formed? Answer: Cincinnati • Why did many Jews leave Europe: Answer: Poverty and oppressive rules • Where did the Jews mostly first come to America? Answer: New York • What sideof the Civil War did Jews Fight on? Both Union and Confederate

40. Terms to Know

41. 1st 5 terms • Sedar- Jewish prayer book • Kippa- Jewish cap that men wear. • Abolitionist-A person against slavery • Defamation act of causing false or injustified injury of the good reputation of someone • reform- to change

42. 2nd 5 terms • Pogrom- destruction/devastation • Cavalry-a section of the military that ride on horseback • Chaplain-a person who says an invocation at an assembly • Colossus-something of extraordinary height • Radical-doing something to the extreme

43. 3rd terms • Bill-a law that is being proposed to legislation but hasn’t been passed yet • Oath-a promise • Turmoil-distressing times • Kosher-the set of guidelines that instruct a Jewish diet • Louisiana Purchase-the purchase of land for the US by Thomas Jefferson from Napoleon

44. Bibliography

45. bib • Goodman,Gwen (editor). Dreams of Freedom. National Museum of American Jewish History.Phila, Pa. 2011 • Jews in America, Our Story.1800’s. http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nineteen/nkeyinfo/judaism.htm • Jews in America. Jewish Virtual Library. 2010 http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/jewstoc.html 1/5/11 • Jews in America, Our Story 1830-1880. Center for Jewish History. 2010 http://www.jewsinamerica.org/ 1/5/11 • Klinger, Jerry. Jewish Magazine. 1800-1860. http://www.jewishmag.com/82mag/usa5/usa5.htm • Klinger, Jerry. No Jews Welcome-Welcome to all Jews. The Jewish Magazine.8/2004 http://www.jewishmag.com/82mag/usa5/usa5.htm1/5/ 2011 • Klinger, Jerry. Slavery. Jewish Magazine. http://www.jewishmag.com/83mag/usa6/usa6.htm • Origins of Reform Judaism. Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Origins_of_Reform_Jud • Timeline, Jews in America. Center for Jewish History. 2010. http://www.jewsinamerica.org/ 1/5/11 •  Timeline 1800’s. Archives of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/haventohome/timeline/haven-timeline_2.html 2/9/10