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Instructional Design. Last Week: Constructivism. Instructional Design. Definition. Instructional Design. Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences.
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Instructional Design Definition
Instructional Design • Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. • The process consists of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. • The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed.
Instructional Design • We can divide models of instructional design broadly into two categories • MARCO: Models which concern themselves with the design and planning of an entire module or programme • MICRO: Models which concern themselves with the design and planning of an individual lecture or teaching session
Instructional Design The Classic Macro Model: Bloom’s Taxonomy
Benjamin S. Bloom • Born Feb 21, 1913 • Died Sept 13, 1999 • Born in Lansford, Pennsylvania. • Educational psychologist • Editor of “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain”
Bloom’s Taxonomy • In the 1950s Bloom helped developed a taxonomy of cognitive objectives in “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain” • Means of expressing qualitatively different kinds of thinking • Been adapted for classroom use as a planning tool and continues to be one of the most universally applied models • Provides a way to organise thinking skills into six levels, from the most basic to the more complex levels of thinking
Bloom’s Taxonomy(Meaning) • Evaluation: compare and discriminate between ideas, assess value of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument, verify value of evidence, recognize subjectivity • Synthesis: use old ideas to create new ones, generalize from given facts, relate knowledge from several areas, predict, draw conclusions • Analysis: seeing patterns, organization of parts, recognition of hidden meanings, identification of components • Application: use information use methods, concepts, theories in new situations, solve problems using required skills or knowledge • Comprehension: understanding information,grasp meaning, translate knowledge into new context • Knowledge: observation and recall of information,knowledge of dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas Higher-order thinking
Bloom’s Taxonomy(Verbs) • Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value • Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare • Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine • Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use • Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review • Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state Higher-order thinking
Examples • Example Exam Paper 1 • Example Exam Paper 2
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised • In the 1990s Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, led a new assembly which met for the purpose of updating the taxonomy, hoping to add relevance for 21st century students and teachers • Published in 2001, the revision includes several minor and major changes. • The revised version of the taxonomy is intended for a much broader audience.
Original Terms New Terms • Evaluation • Synthesis • Analysis • Application • Comprehension • Knowledge • Creating • Evaluating • Analysing • Applying • Understanding • Remembering
Creating: Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing. Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging Analysing: Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships. Comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding Applying: Using information in another familiar situation. Implementing, carrying out, using, executing Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining Remembering: Recalling information. Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised Higher-order thinking
Instructional Design Other Macro Models
ADDIE Model • The ADDIE model is used by instructional designers and training developers. It is composed of five phases • Analysis, • Design, • Development, • Implementation, and • Evaluation • Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.
ADDIE Model : A = Analysis • In analysis stage of ID process, want to find out: • Who are the learners or audience • Audience analysis • What is the goal or intended outcome • Goal analysis
ADDIE Model : D = Design • Content of the course • Subject matter analysis • Steps of instruction • Lesson planning-writing objectives • Type of media or presentation mode • Media selection
ADDIE Model : D = Development • Development of instruction • Generate lesson plans (different from lesson planning) and lesson materials. • Complete all media & materials for instruction, and supporting documents. • End result is a course or workshop ready for delivery.
ADDIE Model : I = Implementation • The delivery of the instruction. • Purpose is effective & efficient delivery of instruction. • Promote students’ understanding of material & objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge.
ADDIE Model : E = Evaluation • Two related evaluations going on simultaneously in most ID situations. • Formative Evaluation • Summative Evaluation
The elusive origins of the ADDIE Model • Remarkably it appears that the ADDIE model wasn’t specifically developed by any single author but rather to have evolved • informally through oral tradition. • The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial term used to describe a systematic approach to instructional development.
ASSURE model • Analyze learners’ characteristics, competencies, and learning styles • State objectives for what your lesson should accomplish (ABCD format—audience/behavior/condition/degree) • Select, modify, and design methods, media, and materials • Utilize methods, media and materials—implement the lesson • Require learner participation in lesson • Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and revise as necessary • From “Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning” by Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James D. Russell, Sharon E. Smaldino
The ABCD Format • Audience: The audience is the group of individuals who are targeted for instruction. While at first this seems straight forward, many times employees will ask “will I get anything out of this training?” or “should I attend this training?” or “who is supposed to go to this training?” Without a clear-cut audience in mind, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly who gains from the training and who would be better served in a different class. • Behaviour: The behaviour element of the objective indicates the desired outcome of the particular learning event. The behaviour will be stated in the following form “will be able to detail properly” or “will be able to discuss the mechanism of action (MOA) with the doctor.” The behaviour is what you want the person to be able to do as a result of the training. It is important to clarify the behaviour because training programs can get off track when the desired outcome of the training activity is not clearly defined. • Condition: The term “condition” describes circumstances under which the behaviour should occur. An example would be “when calling on a doctor,” The condition describes a trigger for the desired behaviour. • Degree: The term “degree” represents how well the employee must perform to be considered acceptable. The degree of the objective is the measurable component. Measures can be expressed as level of productivity, quantity, quality, time, internal or external customer requirements, or other criteria gained from actual or anticipated work practices. • From “Instructional Technology - A Systematic Approach to Education” by Frederick G. Knirk, Kent L. Gustafson
Dick and Carey Model • The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled “The Systematic Design of Instruction”. • It champions a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction.
Dick and Carey Model Revise Instruction Conduct Instructional Analysis Assess Need to Identify Goal(s) Write Performance Objectives Develop Assessment Instruments Develop Instructional Strategy Develop And Select Instructional Materials Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation Analyze Learners and Contexts Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
ICARE model • Based on the Dick and Carey Model and pioneered by San Diego State University in 1997, the model has found a place in the higher education sector.
ICARE model • Introduce learners to what is to be learned • Content of lesson is presented to learner involving active participation • Apply new knowledge and skills with practical activities • Reflect on what has been learned • Extend learning of lesson by providing alternative resources
Tripp and Bichelmeyer • Design that occurs in a rapid prototyping environment, when prototyping is specifically used as a method for instructional design. • The analysis of needs and content depends in part upon the knowledge that is gained by actually building and using a prototype instructional system.
Tripp and Bichelmeyer • Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy, Educational Technology Research and Development, 38, 1, 3/18/1990, Pages 31-44
Tripp and Bichelmeyer • Diagram needs additions
Other Macro Models • There are many other macro models of instructional design, we won’t go into them, but I’ve included a few pictures for your viewing pleasure.
Instructional Design Micro Models
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction • Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn. • Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for assessment. • Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process. • Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learner. • Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies. • Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention. • Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback. • Assess performance - take a final assessment. • Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a "performance" focus. Micro
Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory • Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course • Simple to complex:start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and then add elaborations in subsequent lessons. • Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex, abstract to concrete. • Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice format • Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge, e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision table, or a cause-effect model . • Analogies: relate the content to learners' prior knowledge, use multiple analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners. • Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics, etc. - can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material. • Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of strategy components facilitates effective learner control of those components. Micro
