The Study of Ethics Chapter 1-4

1. The Study of EthicsChapter 1-4

2. derived from the Greek word ethos which means “characteristics way of acting”. Latin equivalent is mos, mores meaning “tradition or custom”. Ethos includes cultural mannerisms, religion, politics, laws, and social aspirations of a group of people. Ethos refers to those characteristics belonging to man as a rational being, endowed with intellect and free-will. Ethics

3. He is able to distinguish between good and evil, right and wrong, moral and immoral. • He feels within himself an obligation to do what is good and to avoid what is evil. • He feels himself accountable for his actions, expecting reward or punishments for them. • Man is endowed by nature with a moral sense.Self-conscious of his dignity and submits to the duty of doing what is good and avoid what is wrong. • Man is expected to conducts himself according to the “dictates of reason”. The ethos of man as man is revealed in the following:

4. Defined as the science of the morality of human acts. Actions reflect the motives of the doer Study of human motivation, and of human rational behavior. That aspect of the subject matter which primarily interests Ethics is morality. Ethics, its meaning: Ethics

5. Actions performed by man, knowingly and freely Also called as deliberate or intentional actions, or voluntary actions Human Acts

6. Instinctive and involuntary Morality The quality of human acts by which they are constituted as good, bad, or indifferent Good is described as moral Bad is described as immoral Which is indifferent is amoral Acts of Man

7. a person who has the habit or inclination to do good Vicious one who has a habit of doing wrong Virtuous

8. In the classical tradition Ethics as Value Education • Ethics is Moral Philosophy and is distinguished from Moral Theology. • Ethics- relies solely on human reason to investigate truths. • Moral Theology- employs reason insofar as it is enlightened by faith or divine revelation

9. Ethics takes place the form of Value Education. A value is something a person prizes, cherishes, and esteems as important to him. It includes ideas, things, or experiences Aim of Value Education- guides the individual in choosing wisely his values and in acting upon them. In contemporary curriculum

10. Ethics is the rational foundation of any attempt at Value Education • It goes deeper into the reasons why we must choose certain values. • It explains human values in relation to the ultimate purpose of human existence

11. Art is the appreciation of beauty. • it implies order and harmony Ethics is an art • It is a breath of life, pulsating with the desire for growth and development. • It is a master plan indicating where man must go and what he ought to do in order to live well • Every man is an artist, creating something of beauty out of his self The Art of Correct Living

12. Ethics is an indispensible knowledge. Without moral perception, man is only an animal. Without morality, man as rational being is a failure. Importance of Ethics

13. The most powerful king, or the most successful professional, is nothing unless he too is morally upright. Philosopher speak of ethics as the “only necessary knowledge” Jacques Leclercq- “We are tempted to center everything on human happiness” Christianity and Money,p.9- “ forgetting that man’s greatness, perfection and happiness, his whole meaning in fact, consist in transcending the commonly accepted human good” Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to be.

14. Russell observes that “without civic morality, communities perish; without personal morality their survival has no value”. Morality is the foundation of every human society.

15. Atheistic Approach • Assumes that only matter exists and that man is responsible only to himself since there is no God who creates and rules the universe. • Morality is an intervention of man to suit his requirements and to preserve his society. • Moral truths are therefore temporary and mutable depending on the situation. • The concept of good and evil is always relative and changeable. Two Ethical Systems

16. Matter is the only reality. • Matter is matter and does not have spiritual dimension. • Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of society. • There is no life after death. • Man is accountable only to the State. Atheistic theories propose the following principles:

17. Begins with the assumption that God is the Supreme Lawgiver. • Everything must conform to God’s eternal plan of creation. • Man must exercise his freedom in accordance with God’s will. • There are absolute principles of morality which are not changeable. • Man is accountable for his actions and deserves either a reward or punishment in this life or in the next. Theistic Approach

18. God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver. • Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his personal and social interest along with his fellowmen. • Man has an immortal soul which cannot die. • Man is accountable for his actions, both good and evil. Theistic theories postulate the following truths:

19. Ethics A science and depends upon rational investigation of its truths. It teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a duty to the Almighty. Ethics and Religion

20. A system of beliefs and practices based on faith or revelation An organized church contributes to the teaching of ethics and continues to enrich with its moral insights. Religion provides both the direction and motivation for the moral life of people. While different religions give different emphasis to different moral values, they coincide in their efforts to improve both man and human society Religion

21. Ethics studies human motivation. • It goes deeper than the study of external actions. • It explores thoughts and feelings. • It requires that man desires that which is good and act in accordance with that desire. • Law requires that we perform the required action regardless of our feeling towards such action. • It concerned with the externality of the act. • Ethical norms cover thoughts and feelings. • Laws do not judge man’s thoughts and desires. Ethics and Law

22. Morality has a wider implication than a law, because law can either be moral or immoral. Thus what is legal is not necessarily moral; but what is moral is necessarily worth legalizing. Ethics is not simply a body of do’s and don’ts in the manner laws are. Ethics is personal commitment to uphold what is true and good. Ethics aim to develop “right disposition and inner spirit” for accepting what is lawful. Continue of ethics and law

23. The practice of a profession cannot be regulated entirely by legislation. Each profession therefore subscribes to a set of moral code. Code of Ethics guides the actuation of a professional where the law is silent or inadequate. A code of Ethics implies that, before anything else, a professional is a person who has the obligation to listen to the “dictates of reason”. The need for it is obviously to the advantage of the profession. The Code of Ethics for Business proposed by the Bishops Businessmen’s Conference for Human Development, Philippines, provides: Professional Ethics

24. Towards the Customers, business shall, in the production of goods and services: • Strive after a quality that will enable them to serve their purpose efficiently and effectively; • Avoid anything that would be detrimental to the health, safety or growth of the proper user or beneficiary of such goods and services; • And seek to apply or make use of the discoveries and inventions of science with adaptations that will improve their products or services, thereby benefiting customers/users increasingly their number.

25. In its marketing arrangement, business shall: • Deliver the product or service in the quality, quantity, and time agreed upon, and at a reasonable price, and avoid the creation of artificial shortages, price manipulation, and like practices; Continue ofProfessional Ethics

26. Establish an after-sales and complaints service commensurate to the kind of product or service supplied and the prices paid; • Ensure that all mass media, promotional, and package communications be informative and true, and take account the precepts of morality and the sound cultural values of the community, and manifest respect for human dignity.

27. Human Acts • Those actions which man performs knowingly, freely, and voluntarily. • Actions are the result of conscious knowledge and are subject to the control of the will. • Deliberate, intentional, or voluntary The Human Acts

28. Those actions which happen in man • They are instinctive and are not within the control of the will • Actions are biological and physiological movements in man such as metabolism, respiration, fear, anger, love, and jealousy. Acts of Man

29. Essential Attributes For an act to be considered a human act, it must possess the following characteristics: It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware of what he is doing and of its consequences. Children below the age of reason, the insane, and the senile- are incapable of acting knowingly. It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is by his own volition and powers. An action done under duress and against one’s will is not entirely a free action. It must be performed by an agent who decides willfully to perform the act. This willfulness is the resolve to perform an act here and now, or in some future time.

30. Human acts are either elicited acts or commanded acts. Elicited acts are those performed by the will and are not bodily externalized. Kinds of Human Acts

31. Paul Glenn enumerates the following elicited acts: • Wish- is the tendency of will towards something, whether this be realizable or not. It may include the impossible, or that which is remotely possible, such as winning the sweepstakes. • Intention- is the tendency of the will towards something attainable but without necessarily committing oneself to attain it. Such is our intention to study the lesson, to attend a party, to spend a vacation in Baguio.

32. 3. Consent- is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the intention. Thus, a woman is to show consent when she consciously attracts attention to herself. 4. Election- is the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry out the intention. A salesman shows election shows when he opts to visit a client instead just writing him a letter.

33. 5. Use- is the command of the will to make use of those use means elected to carry out the intention. It is this act of the will which moves the salesman to dress up and take a ride to see his client. 6. Fruition- is the enjoyment of the will derived from the attainment of the thing he had desired earlier. The joy of the woman on being complimented for her attractiveness, or, the satisfaction of the salesman in closing a deal with his client- is fruition.

34. -are those done either by man’s mental or bodily powers under the command of the will. -can either be internal or external actions. Examples of Internal Actions -conscious reasoning -recalling something -encouraging oneself -controlling aroused emotions and others Commanded acts

35. -walking, eating, dancing, laughing, listening, reading and others. Actions that are combinations of internal and external movements: -listening, studying, reading, driving a car, writing a letter , or playing chess. Examples of External Actions

36. Human Acts may either be in conformity or not with the dictates of reason. “Dictates of Reason” refers to the shared consciousness of prudent people about the propriety of a certain action or manner of behavior. It shows what is permissible in a given situation, the best option as a matter of fact. stands for the norm of morality which is the standard by which actions are judged as to their merits or demerits. Moral Distinction

37. Actions are classified into moral, immoral or amoral based on their relation to the norm of morality • Moral Actions- actions which are in conformity with the norm of morality. • - They are good actions and are permissible • Examples: working, studying, paying debt, telling truth, loving a friend • Immoral Actions- actions which are not in conformity with the norm of morality. • -They are bad or evil and are not permissible. • Examples: Refusing to help the needy, committing murder, adultery, stealing, telling lies.

38. A moral actions- actions which stand neutral in relation to the norm of morality. -They are neither good nor bad in themselves. • Example: playing basketball is an amoral act, but playing basketball when one is supposed to be attending a class is wrong. Playing basketball out of sense of duty to the team is good.

39. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Evil The relation of actions to the norm of morality is either intrinsic or extrinsic. Something is intrinsic to a thing when it is integral to the nature of that thing. Example: the sweetness of a mango fruit is intrinsic to it. But the appeal of a mango to a particular person is extrinsic to it, that is, such quality is not an integral element of it as fruit.

40. Some actions are intrinsically evil because their nature is defective either by excess or by lack of certain attributes. Example: the nature of stealing which, by nature, manifests lack of respect for the property of another. Some actions are extrinsically evil because certain factors attached to them by way of circumstances render them opposed to the norm of morality. Example: Drinking liquor is extrinsically evil when done in excess.

41. Imputability of Human Acts Human Acts- done by a person who is in control of his faculties: intellect and will. A person is like a captain of a ship who assumes full responsibility and accountability for his decisions. Imputability of a human act means that the person performing the act is liable for such act. It involves the notion of guilt or innocence. Actions are either praiseworthy or blameworthy. Actions are attributed to the doer as their principal cause.

42. Actions that are intrinsically evil are prohibited at all times and under any circumstance. Actions that are extrinsically evil may be tolerated provided the circumstance rendering it to be wrong is first removed. Example: Suicide is intrinsically evil and remains immoral whatever is its justification. Therapeutic abortion is extrinsically evil when it is resorted to as a necessary means to safeguard the life of the mother.

43. Sanctions and Penalties Imputability- implies that the doer is either deserving of reward or punishment. This is a basic requirement of justice. The penal laws of our country provide for a system of punishment for crimes, ranging from simple fines to imprisonment. The capital punishment, that, is death penalty, is reserved for “heinous crimes”

44. Immoralities are not given corresponding legal punishments such as fines or imprisonment. The Bible, however, speaks of death as the punishment for ‘sins’. Though the Old Testament interpret this as death by execution, it refers more to a spiritual death or suffering. A form of a spiritual death is the loss of peace of mind, the only genuine happiness possible in this life.

45. Voluntariness • comes from Latin word “voluntas” referring to the Will. • essential to an act, without it an act is a mere act of man • Perfect voluntariness- is present in a person who fully knows and fully intends an act. • Ex. A man who, wanting to get even takes a gun and shoots his enemy is said to be acting with perfect voluntariness. • 2. Imperfect voluntariness- is present in a person who acts without fully realizing what he means to do, or without fully intending the act. • Ex. A man might act irrationally without fully realizing what he is doing; or, a woman in terror, might jump out of a window without fully intending to kill herself.

46. Conditional voluntariness- is present who is forced by circumstances beyond his control to perform an act which he would not do under normal conditions. • Ex. A child who is intimidated by his mother to study the lesson is acting with conditional voluntariness. • Simple voluntariness- is present in a person doing an act willfully, regardless of whether he likes to do it or not. It is either positive or negative. • Ex. It is positive when act requires the performance of an activity, such as polishing the floor, paying rent, or playing tennis. • It is negative when an act requires the omission of activity, such as not taking prohibited drugs, remaining quiet, or not listening to the radio.

47. Types of Voluntariness Direct voluntariness- accompanies an act which is primarily intended by the doer, either as an end in itself or as a means to achieve something else. Ex. Eating lunch is carried on with direct voluntariness. Going to school, inviting a friend to a movie, reading a book, or writing a note. 2. Indirect voluntariness- accompanies an act or situation which is the mere result of a directly willed act. Ex. Getting a failing mark is indirectly voluntary on the part of the student who has willingly neglected to study.

48. Indirectly Voluntary A person is accountable for his actions and their consequences. But is he also accountable for results not directly intended? Paul Glennconsiders a person accountable for indirectly voluntary results of his acts when: The doer is able to foresee the evil results or effect, at least, in a general way; The doer is free to refrain from doing that which would produce the foreseen evil; The doer is a moral obligation not to do that which would produces an evil effect; (Ibid.18-19)

49. Alfredo Panizocites these principles; A person is held morally responsible for any evil effect which flow from the action itself directly and necessarily as a natural consequence, though the evil effect not directly willed or intended. A human act from which two effect may result, one good and one evil, is morally permissible under four conditions. If any of these conditions is violated, then the action is not justifiable and should not be done.

50. These four conditions are: • The action which produces double effect s must be good in itself, or at least morally indifferent. • The good effect must not come from evil effect. To do evil in order to achieve something good is not justified. • The motive or the doer must be towards the attainment of the good. The evil effect is permitted only as an incidental result. • The good effect must outweigh the evil result in its importance.