#include <pthread.h> #include <semaphore.h> #include <stdlib.h>

#include <pthread.h> #include <semaphore.h> #include <stdlib.h> pthread_mutex_t sem_mut = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER; pthread_mutex_t cond_mut = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER; pthread_cond_t cond = PTHREAD_COND_INITIALIZER; pthread_t tip ; pthread_t tip1 ; int rander ; void *sender(void *) ; void *receiver(void *) ; sem_t sema_dude ; main() { rander = rand() % 10 ; //returns random num between 0 - 9 printf("Rander is %d\n", rander) ; sleep(rander) ; sem_init(&sema_dude, 0, 0); pthread_create(&tip, NULL, sender, NULL) ; pthread_create(&tip1, NULL, receiver, NULL) ; pthread_join(tip, NULL); pthread_join(tip1, NULL) ; }

void *sender (void *param) {printf("Hello world!!\n") ; sem_wait(&sema_dude) ; printf("Im back\n") ; } void *receiver (void *param) {printf("Hello from ME!\n") ; sleep(2) ; sem_post(&sema_dude) ; }

gcc try_sem.c -lpthread -lposix4 //on gandalf (g)cc try_sem.c –lpthread //most Linux systems

Random Number Generator • #include <stdlib.h> • int rand() //returns a random integer, not double • int my_rand = rand() % 20 ; //returns a random int between 0 and 19

Page 240: sem_t sem mutex incorrect. • sem_t mutex ; while (true) { sleep(….) ; rand = rand() ; …… } while (true) {sleep_time = rand() % 10 ; sleep(sleep_time) ; ……………..}

Background • Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical memory. • Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution. • Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space. • Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes. • Allows for more efficient process creation. • Virtual memory can be implemented via: • Demand paging • Demand segmentation

Shared Library Using Virtual Memory

Demand Paging • Bring a page into memory only when it is needed. • Less I/O needed • Less memory needed • Faster response • More users (higher level of multiprogramming) • Page is needed  reference to it • invalid reference  abort • not-in-memory  bring to memory

Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main Memory

Page Fault • If there is ever a reference to a page, first reference will trap to OS  page fault • OS decides: • Invalid reference  abort. • Just not in memory. • Get empty frame.

Page Fault • Get empty frame. • Swap page into frame. • Reset tables, validation bit = 1. • Restart instruction

Steps in Handling a Page Fault

What happens if there is no free frame? • Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not really in use, swap it out. • algorithm • performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum number of page faults. • Same page may be brought into memory several times.

Page Replacement • Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers – only modified pages are written to disk. • Page replacement completes separation between logical memory and physical memory – large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller physical memory.

Basic Page Replacement • Find the location of the desired page on disk. • Find a free frame: - If there is a free frame, use it. - If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a victim frame. • Read the desired page into the (newly) free frame. Update the page and frame tables. • Restart the process.

Page Replacement Algorithms • Want lowest page-fault rate. • Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory references (reference string) and computing the number of page faults on that string. • In examples, the reference string is: 7,0,1,2,0, 3,0,4,2,3, 0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

Optimal Algorithm • Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time. • Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs.

Optimal Page Replacement

First-In-First-Out • Throw out the page that has been in memory the longest. • Good when talking about a set of pages for initialization. • Bad when talking about heavily used variable.

FIFO Page Replacement

Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm • Based on principal of “Locality of Reference”. • A page that has been used in the near past is likely to be used in the near future. • LRU: Determine the least recently used page in memory and evict it. • Can be done but difficult to implement efficiently.

LRU Page Replacement

Second Chance Approximations • Try to approximate LRU. • Add a “reference” bit to page table. The hardware sets this bit to 1 when the page is accessed. • The reference bit is maintained in the page table. • Set of “second chance” algorithms that use the reference bit in page table entry to determine if it has been recently used. • Example: Clock Page Replacement Algorithm.

Page Fault: Evict Current Page and increment pointer. Cur. Pos Evict

Second Page Fault: This guy looks good, evict him and increment pointer Cur. Pos Evict

Third Page Fault: Can’t evict this guy. He has been referenced. Reset reference flag to 0 and check next potential victim. Cur. Pos

Can’t evict this guy either. Reset Reference bit to 0 and move on to next potential victim. 0 Cur. Pos

I can evict this page because it has not been referenced since last time I checked. 0 0 Cur. Pos Victim

This page is referenced and reference bit is set to 1. Which page will be evicted next assuming no other reference bits are set? 1 0 0 Cur. Pos Victim

Other Software Approximations to LRU • Not Frequently Used (NFU). • Associate a software counter with each page. • On timer interrupt, OS scans all pages in memory. • For each page, the R bit (Referenced bit)is added to the counter. • Page with lowest count is evicted.

Problem with NFU • It never forgets. • A page referenced often in earlier phases of the program may not be evicted long after it has been used. • Would like to have an algorithm that “ages” the count. That is, the latest references should be the most important.

Aging Algorithm for Simulating LRU • Now maintain an 8-bit counter for each page in memory. • On each timer interrupt the OS scans the pages to determine which pages have been referenced since last time it checked. • Shift right one bit of the counter. • Place the R bit in the leftmost bit of the counter. • Choose the page to evict that has the lowest count.

Example Assume all counters are currently 0. Consider the case when pages 0,2,4, and 5 are referenced between last interrupt.

Simulating LRU in Software • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software

Simulating LRU in Software • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software Assume pages 0,1, and 4 are referenced since last interrupt.

Simulating LRU in Software Assume 0,1,3,5 are referenced since last interrupt. • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software

Allocation of Frames • Each process needs minimum number of pages. • Two major allocation schemes. • Equal allocation • Proportional allocation. • Replacement Scope can be: • Local. • Global.

Local Scope • Number of pages per process is fixed based on some criteria. • Can use equal allocation or proportional allocation. • Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages. • What are the drawbacks of equal allocation?

Proportional Allocation, Local Scope • Proportional Allocation • Allocate number of pages based on the size of the process. • Problem?

Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages. • What are the drawbacks of this approach? • Allocation may be too small causing significant page faulting. • Allocation may too large reducing number of processes in memory and wasting memory that could be used by other processes.

Proportional Allocation • Allocate pages based on the size of the process. • Problem? • Process needs will vary over its execution leading to the same problems as equal-size pages.

Global Replacement • When a page fault occurs, new page frame allocated to the process. • Page replacement based on previous approaches: e.g., LRU, FIFO, etc. • No consideration of which process should (or can best afford) to lose a page. • Can lead to high page-fault rates.

#include <pthread.h> #include <semaphore.h> #include <stdlib.h>